Table 2.
Descriptive characteristics of the included studies listed in alphabetical order.
| Author, Year [Reference] |
Country | Study Design | Study Period | Sample Size, Gender, Age | N. Depressed Subjects, Gender, Age | Attrition+ | Diagnosis of Depression | Validated Tool, for Depression | Tool used to Assess Meat Intake | Validated Tool, for Meat Intake | Portion of Meat | OR, HR, β, r (CI95%) | Adjustment | QS |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Amani R., 2010 [53] | Iran | case-control | 2006 | 46 F, range 20–25 y | 23 mean age: 20.7 ± 1.6 y | 262 | 21-BDI | yes | 12-item semiquantitative FFQ | n.a. | 3–4 times/week | 2 cases/14 controls p < 0.001 | crude model | 7 |
| Barros M., 2017 [54] | Brazil | cross-sectional | 2013–2014 | 49,025 (25,542 F; 23,483 M) mean: 37 y | 3107 minor depression; 2037 major depression | 11,177 (M; F) | PHQ-9 | yes | 12-item FFQ | yes | weekly consumption | Minor depression: OR 1.26 (1.12–1.41) | age, sex, and education | 9 |
| Major depression: OR 1.43 (1.23–1.66) | ||||||||||||||
| El Ansari W., 2014 [55] | England, Walls, Ireland | cross-sectional | 2007–2008 | 3464 (2699 F; 765 M) mean: 24.9 ±8.6 | n.a. | 242 (M; F) | 20-items Modification of BDI | yes | 12-item questionnaire | no | several times a day | F: r = 0.008 p = 0.680 | crude model | 7 |
| M: r = −0.003 p = 0.942 | ||||||||||||||
| Elstgeest L.E.M., 2019 [56] | Italy | longitudinal study 3-y FU | 1998–2009 | baseline 1058 (579 F; 479 M) mean: 65.8 ±15.2 FU1: 960, FU2: 853, FU3: 757 |
baseline: 187; FU1: 231; FU2: 145; FU3: 150 |
148 (M; F) | CES-D | yes | 240-FFQ | yes | Quartiles of standardized intake | β = −0.39 (−1.13, 0.36) p = 0.313 | baseline CES-D score, age, sex, marital status, education, PA, smoking, living disabilities, alcohol intake and energy intake. | 10 |
| Gibson-Smith D., 2020 [57] | the Netherlands | longitudinal 9-y FU | 2004 | 1634 (1108 F; 526 M = mean: 52.0 ± 13.2 | 414 depressed and 886 remission | 435 (M; F) | IDS-SR | yes | 258-FFQ | yes | n.a. | β = −0.05 (−0.11, −0.00) p = 0.05 | age, sex, education, marital status, PA, smoking status | 9 |
| Goh C.M.J., 2019 [58] | Singapore | cross-sectional | 2013 | 2565 (1448 F; 1117 M) range: 60–85 y | 425 subsyndromal; 177 depression | 0 | GMS-AGECAT | yes | National survey | no | n.a. | Depression: OR = 3.21 (1.02 10.14) p = 0.05 | crude model | 7 |
| Subsyndromal OR = 2.61 (1.20 5.67) p = 0.02 | ||||||||||||||
| Gregorio M.J., 2017 [59] | Portugal | cross-sectional | 2013–2015 | 7591 (4784 F; 2807 M) mean: 48.02 ± 18.02 | n.a. | 2562 (M; F) | HADS | yes | food questionnaire not further specified | n.a. | n.a. | OR = 1.50 (1.07 2.09) p = 0.018 | age, sex, education, employment, territorial units, smoking, PA and alcohol habits. | 9 |
| Jacka F.N., 2012 [60] | Australia | cross-sectional | 2009 | 1046 F range: 20–93 y | 60 | 81 | SCID-I/NP | yes | Cancer Council dietary questionnaire | yes | >57 g/day | OR = 1.82 (0.88 3.75) | age and dietary pattern score | 9 |
| Li Y., 2020 [61] | USA | cross-sectional | 2007–2014 | 17,845 (9102 F; 8743 M) range: 18–65 y | 1647; (1070 F; 577 M) | 0 | PHQ-9 | yes | 24-h dietary recall interviews by trained interviewers | yes | 0.20 g/kg per day | OR = 0.82 (0.43–1.54) | age, sex, race, marital status, education, income, BMI, diabetes, hypertension, smoking, alcohol, energy intake, fruit intake, vegetable intake, Mg intake, Zn intake, SFA intake, MUFA intake, PUFA intake and PA | 10 |
| Mikolajczyk R.T., 2009 [26] | Germany, Poland-Bulgaria | cross-sectional | 2005 | 1839 (1194 F; 645 M), mean: 20.6 ± 2.3 | n.a. | 264 (M; F) | M-BDI | yes | 12-item FFQ | no | n.a. | F: r = −1.38 p = 0.01 | country and all the other food components | 8 |
| M: r = −0.66 p = 0.34 | ||||||||||||||
| Noguchi R., 2013 [62] | Japan | cross-sectional | n.a. | 166 (62 F; 104 M) mean: 38.7 ± 10.2 | 75 (25 F; 50 M) | 0 | H-SDS | yes | BDHQ-56 foods | yes | n.a. | r = −0.159 | age, BMI and sex | 8 |
| Okubo R., 2019 [63] | Japan | longitudinal 5 y FU | 1990–2014 | 1112 (652 F; 460 M) mean: 73 y | 85 | 11,107 | PHQ-9 | yes | 147-FFQ | yes | 4 times/week | 27 cases/244 controls | crude model | 8 |
| Park Y., 2012 [64] | Korea | case-control | 2008–2010 | 168 (112 F; 56 M) mean: 44.85 ± 1.77 y | 80 (59 F; 21 M) | 0 | CES | yes | 91-FFQ | yes | >3.61 serving/week | OR = 4.39 (1.25–15.38) | Drinking, marital status, sleeping hours, education, job and energy except for energy intake | 8 |
| Rienks J., 2013 [65] | Australia | cross-sectional and longitudinal analysis 3-years FU | 2001–2004 | 8369 F in cross-sectional; mean: 52.5 ± 1.5 | 721 in cross-section; 660 in longitudinal | 2857 | CES | yes | 101-FFQ | yes | n.a. | OR = 1.06 (0.99–1.13) p = 0.11; | energy, smoking, PA, ability to manage on available income, occupation status, education, marital status, mean stress score and BMI | 10 |
| 7588 in longitudinal mean: 52.5 ± 1.5 | HR = 1.02 (0.95–1.10) p = 0.54 | |||||||||||||
| Sànchez-Villegas A., 2009 [66] | Spain | longitudinal 4.4 y FU | 1999–2005 | 10,094 (F and M) age n.a. | 480 (156 M, 324 F) | 5347 | self-reported | no | 136-FFQ | yes | 177 g/d M; 167 g/d F | HR= 1.35 (1.01–1.80) | sex, age, smoking, BMI, PA, energy intake, and employment | 8 |
| Won M.S., 2016 [67] | Korea | case-control | 2013 | 2236 F range: 19–64 y | 315 | 430 | self-reported | no | 112-FFQ | n.a. | 0.20 ± 0.02 servings/day | 19–29 y: 45 cases/322 controls; 30–49 y: 119 cases/958 controls; 50–64 y: 151 cases/641 controls |
crude model | 5 |
| Zhou X., 2014 [27] | China | cross-sectional | 2012–2013 | 11,473 (6155 F; 5318 M) mean: 53.72 | n.a. | 0 | PHQ-9 | yes | food questionnaire not further specified | n.a. | ≥500 g/week | OR 0.61 (0.47–0.78) | crude model | 7 |
F: female; M: male; y = years; FU: follow-up; N: number; n.a.: not available; BMI: Body Mass Index; PA: physical activity; FFQ: Food Frequency Questionnaire; Zn: Zinc; Mg: Magnesium; PUFA: Poly-unsaturated Fatty Acids; MUFA: mono-unsaturated acids; SFA: saturated fatty acids; BDI: Beck Depression Inventor; CES-D: Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale; GMS-AGECAT: Geriatric Mental State with Automated Geriatric Examination for Computer Assisted Taxonomy; H-SDS: Himorogi Self-rating Depression Scale; HADS: The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale; IDS-SR: Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology—Self Report; PHQ-9: Patient Health Questionnaire–9; SCID-I/NP: The Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-TR Research Version, non-patient edition.