Table 1.

Nano-methodology approaches used in the biosensing of prostate cancer biomarkers.

Nanomethodology	Biomarker	Detection Medium	Feature	Ref.
Magnetic nanoparticle	PSA	Human plasma	Appropriate linear range between 0.001 and 1 μg/L (via SWV method) with a 0.001 μg/L LLOQ.	[139]
Gold nanoparticles	PSA	Serums of healthy and prostate patients	Linear range 0~0.8 ng/mL for PSA measurement with a detection maximum of 0.02 ng/mL.	[140]
Silicon nanowires	miRNA 183 and 484	Plasma	Target nucleic acid molecules can be detected with a high sensitivity of 3.3 × 10−16 M.	[141]
Quantum dots	f-PSA and cPSA	Two human serum	At the same time, detect f-PSA and c-PSA with detection limits of 0.009 ng/mL, in a quick assay time of 60 min.	[142]
Carbon nanotubes	miR-21	Human serum	Strong linear relation with miR-21 target concentration (0.01 fmol/L to 1 μmol/L) and low experimental detection limit of 0.01 fmol/L.	[143]
Graphene	PSA	Blood	The detection limit for total and free PSA antigen was about 0.2 and 0.07 ng/mL, respectively.	[144]
Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) nanoparticles	PSA	Blood serum	Technique can substantially distinguish between low-risk and high-risk PCa with 92.3% accuracy, 89.5% sensitivity and 95% specificity.	[145]
Micro-cantilever or Piezoelectric material	PSA	HP and HSA	Offer a strong platform for DNA-protein, protein-protein binding, and DNA hybridization interactions with high-throughput label-free analyzes.	[146]
Lab-on-a-chip systems	PSA, PSMA and PF-4	Serum	Detection limits for the 3 proteins in undiluted calf serum was 300–500 fg/mL.	[147]

Cancer Prostate (PCa), Free and complexed prostate-specific antigen (f-PSA and c-PSA), MicroRNAs (miRNAs), human serum albumin (HSA), human plasminogen (HP), prostate specific antigen (PSA), prostate specific membrane antigen (PSMA) and platelet factor-4 (PF-4).