Figure 1.

Schematic overview of the activation and regulation of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway. Activation of PI3K is stimulated by binding of an extracellular ligand (e.g., hormones, growth factors, and cytokines) to a cell surface receptor such as the receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) in the plasma membrane. Activated RTK recruits adaptor proteins, which bind to the regulatory p85 subunit of PI3K and subsequently activate the catalytic subunits for full PI3K activation. PI3K is also activated by G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) or small GTPase Ras, which bind PI3K directly. Activated PI3K catalyzes the phosphorylation of phosphatidylinositol-4,5-phosphate (PIP₂) to generate phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-phosphate (PIP₃). PIP₃ recruits phosphoinositide-dependent kinase 1 (PDK1) and Akt to the plasma membrane inducing Akt phosphorylation by PDK1 at T308. Akt activation is completed by phosphorylation at S473 by mTOR complex 2 (mTORC2). The mTOR complex includes two distinct protein complexes, mTORC1 and mTORC2. mTORC1 comprises of mTOR, proline-rich Akt substrate 40 kDa (PRAS40), regulatory-associated protein of mTOR (Raptor), mammalian lethal with Sec13 protein 8 (mLST8, also known as GβL), and DEP-domain-containing mTOR-interacting protein (Deptor) [44]. mTORC2 comprises of mTOR, mLST8, Deptor, protein observed with Rictor-1 (Protor), rapamycin-insensitive companion of mTOR (Rictor), and mammalian stress-activated protein kinase interacting protein (mSin1) [45]. Akt indirectly activates mTORC1 by phosphorylation and inhibition of tuberous sclerosis complex 2 (TSC2) at S939 and T1462, releasing the inhibitory effects of this complex on Ras-related GTPase Rheb, an activator of mTORC1. Akt also directly controls activation of mTORC1 in a TSC2-independent manner via phosphorylation of PRAS40 at T246. The extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)/90 kDa ribosomal S6 kinase (RSK) and liver kinase B1/AMP-activated protein kinase (LKB1/AMPK) signaling pathways impinge on several nodes of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway and can modulate mTORC1 activity. Both ERK and RSK modulate mTORC1 activity by phosphorylation of TSC2 at S664 and S540 (ERK) and S1798 (RSK). ERK1/2 can also control mTORC1 activation by phosphorylation of Raptor at S8, S696, and S863. Master metabolic regulator AMPK inhibits mTORC1 activity in two different pathways, the first by phosphorylation of TSC2 at T1271 and S1387 and the second by phosphorylation of Raptor at S722 and S792. Activated mTORC1 promotes cap-dependent mRNA translation via phosphorylation of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E (eIF4E)-binding protein 1 (4E-BP1) at T37 and T46, which is a priming event required for subsequent phosphorylation of several carboxy-terminal serum-sensitive sites to release 4E-BP1 from eIF4E. Ribosomal protein S6 kinase beta-1 (S6K1) is a downstream target of mTORC1, activated by phosphorylation at T389 by mTORC1 as well as T229 phosphorylation mediated by PDK1. S6K1 in turn activates ribosomal protein S6 (rpS6), which is dispensable for cell growth and protein synthesis. RSK can also directly activate rpS6 via phosphorylation at S235 and S236. The black arrows represent positive regulation (activation), whereas the red blunt-ended lines indicate negative regulation (inhibition). IRS-1 = insulin receptor substrate 1, PTEN = phosphatase and tensin homolog, GDP = guanosine diphosphate, GTP = guanosine triphosphate, JAK = Janus kinase, STAT = signal transducer and activator of transcription. Created with BioRender.com.