Table 3.

Mechanisms of Cytokine Storm in Respiratory Viral Infections^a

Viral respiratory infection	Cytokine storm	Refs
H1N1	IL-6, IL-8, IL-9, IL-17, TNF-α, IL-15, and IL-12p70	[79]
MERS	IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-15, and IL-17	[77,80]
SARS	IL-1β, IL-6, IL-12, IFN-γ, IP-10, and MCP-1	[77,80]
COVID-19	GM-CSF, IL-2, IL-6, IL-7, IL-10, IP-10, MCP-1, MIP-1A, and TNF-α	[8,131]

^aAbbreviations: GM-CSF, human granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor; IFN, interferon; IL, interleukin; IP, interferon-inducible protein; MCP, monocyte chemoattractant protein; MIP-1A, macrophage inflammatory protein-1α; TNF, tumor necrosis factor.