Fig. 1. Schematic of a “Li-free” cell configuration and analysis of electrodeposition of Li onto a current collector at a constant current of 0.05 mA cm⁻² at 25 °C.

a Schematic of a discharged “Li-free” configuration in comparison to state-of-the-art Li-ion and a solid-state Li-metal battery with pre-deposited Li metal. Here, the current collector material is assumed to be Cu. b The potential response upon the initial application of a constant cathodic current, plating Li metal onto a Ni current collector. c The impedance spectra at several points upon the Li plating process.