Fig. 5. Schematic of nucleation and growth process.

a The layers present and Li nucleates (treated as spherical in the nucleation model) and b the critical nucleate radius as a function of nucleation overpotential. c–e Three possible mechanisms for nucleate growth, including c deposition on the nucleate leading to vertical growth and separation of the adjacent CC/LLZO interface, d continued deposition at the nucleate center, with mechanical forces at the interfaces and Li’s low yield strength leading to horizontal plastic flow of Li, or e deposition at the nucleate edges.