Table 2.

Evaluation of the association between food insecurity and cardiometabolic risk in adults and the elderly

Author/Year	Place/Sample	Evaluation method		Association between FI and CRM
		FI	CRM
Holben, Pheley (2006) [16]	United States, n = 2580	Household Food Security Survey – USDA	-Excess weight (BMI)	Obesity:>prevalence among insecure individuals
			-High diastolic BP	FI: Directly associated with o excess weight (BMI) in women
			-High TC
			-Self-reported Diabetes
Seligman et al (2007) [17]	United States, n = 4423	Household Food Security Survey – USDA	-Excess weight (BMI)	Women with FI women:>occurrence of obesity in secure women or severe FI
			-Self-reported diabetes	Participants with severe FI>probability of having diabetes than food secure participants, after adjusting for socio-demographic factors, level of physical activity and BMI
			-High WC
Jilcott et al (2011) [18]	United States, n = 202	Household Food Security Survey – USDA	-Excess weight (BMI)	FI: Directly associated with excess weight (BMI) and perceived stress
			-Stress
Berkowitz et al (2013) [19]	United States, n = 2557	Household Food Security Survey – USDA	-High BP	FI: Directly associated with high glycemia and cholesterolemia, after adjusting for sociodemographic factors, smoking, BMI, diabetes duration, statin use and being under treatment.
			-High cholesterol
			-Diabetes
Irving, Njai, Siegel (2014) [20]	United States, n = 58 677	Question:	-High BP	FI: directly associated with hypertension, after adjusting for age, sex, race/ethnicity, level of education and poverty, health insurance coverage, marital status, and smoking.
		“How often in the past 12 months would you say you were worried or stressed about having enough money to buy nutritious meals?”
Pérez-Escamilla et al (2014) [25]	Mexico, n = 32 320	Adopted version of the Latin America and Caribbean Food Security Scale	-High BP	FI mild, moderate and severe: directly associated with the presence of diabetes and hypertension in women
			-Diabetes
Shariff et al (2014) [26]	Malaysia, n = 625	Household Food Security Survey – USDA	-Excess weight (BMI)	FI: Inversely associated with increased LDL, metabolic syndrome and obesity in women
			-High BP
			-High TC, low HDL, high LDL
			-High WC
			-Metabolic syndrome (presence of 3 or more factors)
Moreno et al (2015) [22]	United States, n = 250	Household Food Security Survey – USDA	-Excess weight (BMI)	FI: associated with BP and LDL
			-High BP
			-High LDL
			-Diabetes
Shin et al (2015) [21]	United States, n = 1663	Questions	-Excess weight (BMI)	FI: Associated directly with low HDL among women, after adjusting for age, race, level of education, family income, smoking, alcohol intake and physical activity
		-“In the last 12 months, have you been concerned about having enough food for you or your family?”
		-“In the last 12 months, have your food choices been limited because there wasn’t enough money?”	-Dyslipidemia (high TC or low HDL)
Saiz Júnior et al (2016) [23]	United States, n = 2935	Question:	-Excess weight (BMI)	FI: Inversely associated with hypertension, TC and BMI
		- “In the last 12 months, have you been concerned about having enough food for you or your family?”	-High BP
			-High TC
Berkowitz et al (2017) [24]	United States, n = 21 196	Household Food Security Survey – USDA	-Excess weight (BMI)	FI: directly associated with hypertension, diabetes, obesity, and LDL
			-High BP
			-High LDL
			-Diabetes

FI – food insecurity, CRM – cardiometabolic risk markers, USDA – US Department of Agriculture, BMI – body mass index, BP – blood pressure, TC – total cholesterol, HDL – high density lipoprotein, LDL – low density lipoprotein, WC – waist circumference, ELCSA – Latin America and Caribbean Food Security Scale