Table 3.

Associations between social participation and cognitive function

	Total score			Memory			Mental status
	All	Men	Women	All	Men	Women	All	Men	Women
	β (95% CI)	β (95% CI)	β (95% CI)	β (95% CI)	β (95% CI)	β (95% CI)	β (95% CI)	β (95% CI)	β (95% CI)
Variety (Ref: None)
1 type	0.377*** (0.192, 0.562)	0.355* (0.080, 0.629)	0.404** (0.154, 0.654)	0.248*** (0.104, 0.391)	0.208+ (-0.003, 0.419)	0.291** (0.096, 0.487)	0.129* (0.026, 0.233)	0.147+ (-0.007, 0.300)	0.113 (-0.028, 0.254)
≥2 types	0.703*** (0.470, 0.937)	0.522** (0.178, 0.865)	0.856*** (0.537, 1.175)	0.440*** (0.258, 0.622)	0.321* (0.056, 0.586)	0.541*** (0.292, 0.791)	0.263*** (0.130, 0.395)	0.201* (0.008, 0.394)	0.315*** (0.135, 0.494)
Frequency (Ref: None)
Not regularly	0.235* (0.007, 0.462)	0.075 (-0.254, 0.405)	0.378* (0.062, 0.693)	0.119 (-0.058, 0.296)	-0.030 (-0.284, 0.223)	0.260* (0.014, 0.507)	0.115+ (-0.013, 0.243)	0.106 (-0.079, 0.290)	0.117 (-0.060, 0.295)
≥1/week	0.604*** (0.411, 0.798)	0.615*** (0.325, 0.904)	0.610*** (0.351, 0.869)	0.407*** (0.257, 0.557)	0.416*** (0.193, 0.639)	0.413*** (0.211, 0.616)	0.197*** (0.089, 0.306)	0.199* (0.036, 0.361)	0.197** (0.051, 0.343)
Interacting with friends (Ref: None)
Not regularly	0.097 (-0.144, 0.338)	0.001 (-0.356, 0.356)	0.175 (-0.151, 0.502)	0.055 (-0.132, 0.242)	-0.018 (-0.292, 0.257)	0.113 (-0.142, 0.368)	0.042 (-0.093, 0.177)	0.018 (-0.182, 0.218)	0.063 (-0.120, 0.246)
≥1/week	0.518*** (0.324, 0.712)	0.574*** (0.278, 0.870)	0.490*** (0.232, 0.749)	0.317*** (0.166, 0.468)	0.386*** (0.158, 0.614)	0.277** (0.075, 0.479)	0.201*** (0.091, 0.310)	0.188* (0.022, 0.354)	0.214** (0.068, 0.359)
Mah-jong, cards, chess or other clubs (Ref: None)
Not regularly	0.240 (-0.078, 0.558)	0.204 (-0.227, 0.635)	0.299 (-0.172, 0.769)	0.145 (-0.102, 0.392)	0.113 (-0.219, 0.444)	0.199 (-0.168, 0.567)	0.095 (-0.084, 0.273)	0.091 (-0.151, 0.333)	0.099 (-0.165, 0.364)
≥1/week	0.640*** (0.326, 0.954)	0.52* (0.086, 0.963)	0.770*** (0.321, 1.219)	0.589*** (0.345, 0.833)	0.432* (0.094, 0.769)	0.755*** (0.404, 1.106)	0.051 (-0.126, 0.227)	0.093 (-0.153, 0.339)	0.015 (-0.238, 0.267)
Voluntary activities (Ref: None)
Not regularly	0.376** (0.121, 0.632)	0.175 (-0.188, 0.538)	0.557** (0.197, 0.917)	0.230* (0.031, 0.428)	0.096 (-0.184, 0.375)	0.349* (0.068, 0.630)	0.147* (0.003, 0.290)	0.079 (-0.124, 0.283)	0.209* (0.006, 0.411)
≥1/week	0.358+ (-0.054, 0.770)	0.675* (0.071, 1.279)	0.109 (-0.455, 0.673)	0.154 (-0.166, 0.474)	0.376 (-0.089, 0.841)	-0.018 (-0.459, 0.422)	0.204+ (-0.027, 0.436)	0.299+ (-0.040, 0.637)	0.127 (-0.190, 0.444)
Sports or social clubs (Ref: No)
Yes	0.362* (0.042, 0.681)	0.030 (-0.476, 0.537)	0.530* (0.123, 0.938)	0.161 (-0.087, 0.409)	0.020 (-0.368, 0.409)	0.229 (-0.090, 0.548)	0.201* (0.022, 0.380)	0.010 (-0.274, 0.294)	0.301** (0.072, 0.531)
Internet (Ref: No)
Yes	0.644* (0.013, 1.273)	0.731+ (-0.068, 1.530)	0.549 (-0.470, 1.568)	0.506* (0.017, 0.995)	0.534+ (-0.081, 1.149)	0.512 (-0.284, 1.308)	0.138 (-0.216, 0.491)	0.197 (-0.250, 0.645)	0.037 (-0.536, 0.609)
Community organisations (Ref: No)
Yes	0.421 (-0.098, 0.939)	0.159 (-0.572, 0.889)	0.702+ (-0.033, 1.437)	0.088 (-0.314, 0.491)	0.036 (-0.526, 0.599)	0.159 (-0.414, 0.734)	0.333* (0.042, 0.624)	0.122 (-0.287, 0.532)	0.542** (0.130, 0.955)

CI – confidence interval

*All models controlled time-varying variables, including year, education, marital status, living near children, retirement status, percapita household income, alcohol consumption, smoking, # of types of NCDs, and # of types of lower body constraints; + P < 0.1, * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01, *** P < 0.001.