Table 3.

Pharmacological properties of A. absinthium.

Activity	Mechanism of Action	References
Stimulating digestion	Change in postprandial haemodynamics in the gastric digestive phase with increased hyperaemia, probably due to the effects of bitter compounds contained in the herb of the plant.	[72]
Stimulating appetite	Enrichment of sheep fodder with silage containing A. absinthium increases the amount of fodder consumed, improves digestion, induces nitrogen retention and has a positive effect on the development of microorganisms involved in nitrogen assimilation.	[73]
	Improvement in nutrient supply and digestion, faster growth, improvement in carcass quality and amount of fatty acids among Hanwoo steers.	[74]
Anthelmintic	Extracts from A. absinthium cause paralysis and/or death of Haemonchus contortus nematodes and reduce the number of the parasite’s eggs in the host’s faeces.	[75]
	Lethal effect on Trichinella spiralis larvae.	[19,76]
	Lethal effect of A. absinthium ethanolic extract on Ascaris suum eggs and Trichostrongylus colubriformis larvae.	[77]
	Lethal effect on Haemonchus contortus tested in vivo; reduction in its mobility in vitro.	[78]
Antiprotozoal	Lethal effect of aqueous and ethanolic extracts from A. absinthium on Plasmodium berghei.	[79]
	Lethal effect of the essential oil on Plasmodium berghei.	[80]
	Lethal effect of A. absinthium on Entamoeba histolytica.	[81]
	Some lethal activity against Trypanosoma brucei.	[82]
	Lethal activity against the promastigota and amastigota forms of the protozoa Leishmania aethiopica and Leishmania donovani.	[83]
	Lethal activity in vitro against Leishmania infantum and Trypanosoma cruzi	[24,34]
	Lethal effect of the essential oil on Trypanosoma cruzi and on Trichomonas vaginalis. The compounds likely to be responsible for this activity are (E)-caryophyllene and 3,6-dihydrochamazulene.	[26]
	Inhibition of Naegleria fowleri growth by sesquiterpenoid lactones in A. absinthium.	[84]
	Lethal effect of A. absinthium aqueous extract against Plasmodium falciparum.	[85]
Antibacterial Antifungal	Growth inhibition by the essential oil from A. absinthium and its lethal activity against: Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus sonnei, Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium perfringens, Listeria monocytogenes, Enterobacter aerogenes, Klebsiella oxytoca, and Proteus mirabilis.	[20]
	Bactericidal activity of A. absinthium essential oil components against Staphylococcus aureus.	[86]
	Lethal effect of A. absinthium extract on Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Haemophilus influenzae, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus, and Staphylococcus aureus.	[87]
	Inhibition of growth of Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium solani and Fusarium moniliforme by the components of A. absinthium essential oil.	[24]
	Inhibition of growth of Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. chevalieri and Candida albicans.	[18]
	Inhibition of growth of the bacteria Listeria monocytogenes and methicillin sensitive/resistant Staphylococcus aureus, and the fungi Fusarium graminearum, Fusarium culmorum, Fusarium oxysporum, Sclerotinia sp. and Rhizoctonia solani by chamazulene in the essential oil.	[22]
	Some bactericidal activity of chlorogenic acid and efflux pump inhibition (EPI) by 4,5-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid isolated from A. absinthium.	[37]
	Lethal action against the fungi Alternaria alternata, Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium sambucinum, Fusarium solani and Aspergillus niger, and the bacteria Arthrobacter spp., Bacillus mycoides, Micrococcus lylae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa.	[88]
Anti-ulcer	Decrease in gastric juice volume, reduction in gastric acid and pepsin secretion, and decrease in digestion rate.	[89]
Hepatoprotective	A. absinthium extracts inhibit liver microsomal enzymes that are responsible for the metabolism of xenobiotics.	[90]
	Methanolic extracts from the herb of the plant protect liver cells by reducing ALAT and ASPAT levels, and by reducing oxidative damage.	[91]
	Protection of the liver due to the immunomodulatory and/or antioxidant properties of A. absinthium.	[36]
Anti-inflammatory	Reduction of inflammatory oedema in mice after administration of the essential oil or methanolic extract from A. absinthium.	[25,92]
	Inhibition of the expression of nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2, reduction in the production of prostaglandin E2, nitric oxide and tumour necrosis factor (TNF-α), reduction in the accumulation of reactive oxygen species by 5,6,3′,5′-tetramethoxy-7,4-hydroxyflavone isolated from A. absinthium.	[42]
	Suppression of tumour necrosis factor (TNF-α) by compounds present in A. absinthium. Among the compounds likely to be responsible for the anti-inflammatory activity of the plant are the chalcone cardamonin, flavonoids, artemisinin, and semisynthetic artesunate.	[38]
	Cardamonin isolated from A. absinthium inhibits the NFĸB pathway by direct inhibition of DNA transcription factors, which leads to reduced NO release.	[39]
	Reduction of paw oedema in rats given carrageenan and venom of Montivipera xanthina after application of A. absinthium extract.	[93]
Immuno-stimulating	Induction of dendritic cell maturation by increasing the level of CD40 surface expression and by induction of cytokines.	[94]
	Induction of TH1 immune response and stimulation of nitric oxide production by macrophages.	[43]
Cytotoxic	Inhibition of proliferation of breast cancer cells of MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 lines.	[95]
	The essential oil, in particular (E)-caryophyllene and/or germacrene D, is toxic to tumour lines A548, NCI-H292, HCT116, MCF-7, SK-MEL-5.	[37]
Analgesic	Reduction of temperature-induced pain in mice.	[92]
	Reduction in episodes in the writhing test and delay in pain response in the hot plate test in mice after administration of A. absinthium essential oil or aqueous extract.	[25]
Neuroprotective	Methanolic extract from A. absinthium, because of its antioxidant potential, reduces brain damage, inhibits of lipid peroxidation, and restores the activity of enzymes involved in reducing oxidative stress. Flavonoids and phenolic acids in the plant are probably responsible.	[96]
	Protective effect of A. absinthium aqueous extract on glial cells and the dopaminergic system when exposed to lead.	[97]
	Caruifolin D in Absinthii herba inhibits the production of pro-inflammatory microglia mediators and reactive oxygen species, and also inhibits protein C kinase and stress-activated kinases.	[41]
Antidepressant	Shortening of the period of mouse immobility in the forced swim test and in the tail suspension test.	[98]
Procognitive	Affinity for human muscarinic and nicotinic receptors responsible for cognitive functions.	[99]
Neurotrophic	Methanolic, ethanolic and aqueous extracts from A. absinthium induce the nerve growth factor (NGF), which stimulates development of neurites.	[100]
Stabilizing cell membranes	Hydro-alcoholic extract from A. absinthium prevents haemolysis of erythrocytes.	[101]
Antioxidant	Antioxidant activity of flavonoids and phenolic compounds in A. absinthium.	[35]
	Reducing properties of polyphenols towards free radicals.	[102]
	A. absinthium contains active compounds that allow electron donation, which prevents oxidation of structures by reactive oxygen species.	[98]
	Synergistic antioxidant effects of the compounds present in the plant.	[34]
	Methanolic extracts from A. absinthium herb have a significant reduction potential.	[22]
	A. absinthium essential oil has the ability to scavenge radicals in DPPH and ABTS tests.	[20]
	Reducing properties of A. absinthium extract and the ability to capture superoxide and hydrogen peroxide anions, hydroxy and nitric oxide radicals; inhibiting oxidative stress, reducing the concentration of TBARS, increasing the concentration of superoxide and glutathione dismutases.	[103]