Interactions between sex hormones and components of the renin-angiotensin system for cardiovascular regulation. Estrogen shifts the balance of the renin-angiotensin system towards angiotensin-(1–7)-ACE2-mas receptor-AT2 receptor pathways to elicit cardiovascular protection. In contrast, testosterone shifts the balance of the renin-angiotensin system towards angiotensin II-ACE-AT1 receptor pathways to elicit deleterious cardiovascular actions. ACE, angiotensin converting enzyme; ACE2, angiotensin converting enzyme 2; Ang, angiotensin; AT1R, angiotensin II type 1 receptor; AT2R, angiotensin II type 2 receptor; MasR, mas receptor.