TABLE 1.
Pre-clinical studies utilizing electrospun scaffolds for tissue engineering of bladder.
| Study | Biomaterial | Electrospinning method | Fiber Diameter (nm) | Solvent | Cell Source | Animal Model | Scaffold Shape (and Size) | Follow-up time | Outcome |
| Feng et al. (2019) | PLCL PLCL/HA | Coaxial-electrospinning | 784.2 ± 138.2 | HFIP/formic acid | None | Rat | Dome-shaped (40–50% supratrigonal cystectomy) | 10 weeks | Smooth muscle regeneration Increased bladder capacity Stone formation |
| Shrestha et al. (2019) | PLCL | Single-jet | NA | HFIP | hADSCs | Rat (detrusor smooth muscle-removed bladder model) | Sheet (1*1 cm) | 4 weeks | Significantly increased compliance and higher smooth muscle contractility of regenerated tissue in the pre-seeded group |
| Sivaraman et al. (2019) | PCUU | Single-jet | NA | HFIP | None | Rat (bladder outlet obstruction) | Sheet (1*1 cm) | 3 weeks | Increased voiding volume and caliculi formation |
| Horst et al. (2017) | Hybrid PEU/BAM Hybrid PLGA/BAM | Double-jet electrospinning of either PEU or PLGA with PEG (porogen) directly onto BAM | PEU: 3600 ± 300 PLGA: 4700 ± 300 | HFIP/chloroform for PEU Chloroform for PLGA | B-SMCs | Rat | Sheet (50% cystectomy) | 8 weeks | Pre-seeded hybrid PLGA/BAM showed marginally superior functional bladder indices Greater regenerative histological score in the pre-seeded hybrid PEU/BAM |
| Shakhssalim et al. (2017) | PCL/PLLA | Double-jet | 120–1500 | Chloroform/DMF | B-SMCs B-UCs | Dog | Circular (10 cm2) | 12 weeks | Suitable cyto-architecture and expression pattern of markers in regenerated tissue in the smooth muscle pre-seeded scaffold No caliculi formation |
| Huang et al. (2016) | Silk fibroin | Single-jet | NA | Water | None | Rabbit (detrusor smooth muscle-removed bladder model) | Sheet (1.5*2 cm) | 8 weeks | Restoration of tissue layers in the regenerated region with the expression of pertinent markers Caliculi formation Mild acute and chronic inflammatory reactions |
| Pokrywczynska et al. (2014) | PLCL | Single-jet | 1390 ± 320 | Chloroform/DMF | rADSCs | Rat | Sheet (1 cm2) | 12 weeks | A general failure of PLCL scaffold due to perforation, and formation of fistula and diverticula |
| Horst et al. (2013) | Hybrid PLGA/BAM | Single-jet electrospinning of PLGA directly onto BAM | 4500 ± 250 | Chloroform | None | Rat | Sheet (50% cystectomy) | 8 weeks | Regeneration of bladder wall with proper cyto-architecture Hybrid scaffold maintained normal bladder capacity |
PLCL, poly(L-lactide-co-caprolactone); PLCL/HA, poly(L-lactide-co-caprolactone)/hyaluronic acid; HFIP, 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-2-propanol; NA, not assessed; hADSCs, human adipose-derived stem cells; PCUU, poly (carbonate-urethane) urea; PEU/BAM, polyesterurethane/bladder acellular matrix; PLGA/BAM, poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)/bladder acellular matrix; PEU, polyesterurethane; PLGA, poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid); PEG, poly(ethylene glycol); BAM, bladder acellular matrix; B-SMCs, bladder smooth muscle cells; PCL/PLLA, poly(ε-caprolactone)/poly(L-lactic acid); DMF, N,N-dimethylformamide; B-UCs, bladder urothelial cells; rADSCs, Rat adipose derived stem cells. NA.