Fig. 1.

A schematic representation of the contrast between ecological (left) and biomedical individualist (right) conceptual frameworks for understanding the origins of SARS-CoV-2 and other zoonoses. According to the individualist framework, SARS-CoV-2 emerged following humans consuming wildlife (represented by a pangolin) or coming into close contact with wild animals such as bats. The ecological framework expands this explanation by incorporating insights such as the extensive genetic recombination between coronaviruses in different species which produce a wide array of novel viruses that can expand into new or expanding niches. The expanding human ecological footprint in conjunction with environmental encroachment and degradation increase the probability of novel pandemic zoonoses such as SARS-CoV-2.