FIGURE 1.

Hypothesized model for reading fluency. Familial risk (FR for reading and mathematical difficulties of mothers and fathers); Reading Fluency 1–Reading Fluency 3, time points of assessments; Grade 1–9, assessments that took place in Grades 1–9. Literacy teaching and numeracy teaching were added in the model as latent variables; they were measured with two questionnaire items each. Shared reading was measured with one questionnaire item making up the observed variables (one for mothers and one for fathers). Other hypothesized models (for reading comprehension and mathematical skills) were constructed with the same logic.