Table 2.
Studies reporting the effects of microgravity on human breast cancer cells.
| Cell Line | µg Condition (Duration) |
Findings | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|
| MCF-7 | Clinostat (24–72 h) |
Alterations of cell invasion, migration, adhesion, cell cycle and vinculin expression | [78] |
| RPM (2 h–5 d) |
After 24 h: compact spheroids; after 5 d: duct-like spheroids; downregulation of ACTB, TUBB, EZR, RDX, FN1, VEGFA, FLK1, CASP3, CASP9, PRKCA | [50] | |
| RPM (24 h) |
Translocation of RelA into the nucleus, upregulation of ANXA1, ANXA2, CTGF, CAV2, ICAM1, FAS, CASP8, BAX, TP53, CYC1, PARP1 | [51] | |
| RPM (48 h) |
Reduction of glucose uptake, methionine uptake/incorporation, thymidine incorporation, proliferation, and metabolic machinery | [83] | |
| RPM (14 d) |
Downregulation of CDH1 and E-cadherin protein in MCS | [53] | |
| PFC (31 × 22 s) |
Upregulation of KRT8, RDX, TIMP1, CXCL8; downregulation of VCL and E-cadherin protein | [54] | |
| Sounding rocket (6 min) |
Disturbance of F-actin bundles, appearance of filopodia- and lamellipodia-like structures; rearrangement of the tubulin network. | [54] | |
| Satellite (1.5–24 h) |
Prolonged cycling/mitosis, loose perinuclear cytokeratin network and chromatin structure, reduced cell proliferation; altered microtubule structure | [106,107] | |
| MDA-MB-231 | RPM (24–72 h) |
Reorganized cytoskeleton; alterations in ERK, AKT and survivin signaling pathways | [49] |
| RPM (2 h) |
Downregulation of ANXA2, BAX | [84] | |
| RCCS (7 d) |
Impaired cell cycle and ultrastructure, increased apoptosis, decreased migration ability and decreased expression of BCL2, MMP9 | [86] | |
| PFC (31 × 22 s) |
Upregulation of NFKB1, RELA, ERK1, ICAM1, NFKBIA, NFKBIB, FAK1, SPP1, CD44; reduced levels of RelA, osteopontin, increased levels of ICAM-1, VCAM-1; changes in cell adhesion | [84] | |
| AU565 | RPM (24 h) |
Upregulation of BRCA1, VCAM1; downregulation of KRAS, VIM; enhanced cell repair, modified cell adhesion |
[52] |
| RPM (5 d) |
Upregulation of VIM, RHOA, BRCA1, MAPK, ERBB2; downregulation of VEGFA | [74] |
MCS, multicellular spheroid; PFC, parabolic flight campaign; RCCS, Rotary Cell Culture System; RPM, Random Positioning Machine. AKT, protein kinase B; ERK, extracellular-signal regulated kinase; RelA, transcription factor p65. Gene symbols: ACTB, β-actin; ANXA, annexin; BAX, Bcl-2-associated X protein; BCL2, B-cell lymphoma 2; BRCA1, breast cancer 1, early-onset; CASP, caspase; CAV2, caveolin-2; CD44, cluster of differentiation 44; CDH1, E-cadherin; CTGF, connective tissue growth factor; CXCL8, interleukin-8; CYC1, cytochrome c1; ERBB2, v-erb-b2 erythroblastic leukemia viral oncogene homolog 2 (=HER2); ERK1, extracellular-signal regulated kinase 1; EZR, ezrin; FAK1, focal adhesion kinase 1; FAS, Fas cell surface death receptor; FN1, fibronectin; FLK1, fetal liver kinase 1, ICAM1, intercellular adhesion molecule 1; KRAS, Kirsten rat sarcoma; KRT8, cytokeratin; MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase; MMP9, matrix metallopeptidase 9; NFKB1, nuclear factor kappa B subunit 1; NFKBIA, NF-κB inhibitor alpha; NFKBIB, NF-κB inhibitor beta; PARP1, poly [ADP-ribose] polymerase 1; PRKCA, protein kinase C alpha; RDX, radixin; RELA, transcription factor p65; RHOA, Ras homolog family member A; SPP1, osteopontin; TIMP1, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases; TP53, tumor protein p53; TUBB, β-tubulin; VCAM1, vascular cell adhesion molecule 1; VCL, vinculin; VEGFA, vascular endothelial growth factor A; VIM, vimentin.