Fig. 1.

Experimental setup, neurofeedback display and EMG traces. Panel A shows the general experimental setup with patient seated in front of a monitor viewing feedback of MEP amplitude (adapted from Cretu et al., 2019). Panel B shows the visual sequence of events for one trial. Each trial commenced with a ‘traffic lights’ display (i) indicating background muscle activity in non-involved muscles, followed by a video (ii) showing a wrist or finger movement, during which the TMS pulse was delivered. Following TMS, a rectangular bar representing the MEP amplitude from the paretic muscles was displayed (iii). The colour of the bar (green or red) and a positive or negative soundbyte indicated to the patient whether their MEP had exceeded (or not) the amplitude of their baseline values recorded prior to training. Panel C shows EMG traces from one patient (NF6) during their final session (Day 4), with exemplar trials shown at i) baseline, ii) during the final block of TMS neurofeedback and iii) at rest post neurofeedback training. TMS delivery is denoted by a black dashed line. A period of 105 ms background EMG prior to TMS is shown. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)