TABLE 2.
Direction of associations between airway bacterial carriage and lower respiratory tract infections from age 6 wk until 10 y
| Staphylococcus aureus OR (95% CI) | Haemophilus influenzae OR (95% CI) | Moraxella catarrhalis OR (95% CI) | Streptococcus pneumoniae OR (95% CI) | Any NP carriage OR (95% CI) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cross‐lagged effects | |||||
| Carriage 6 wk → LRTI 6 mo | 0.92 (0.42, 1.98) | 4.79 (1.50, 15.21)* | 0.76 (0.21, 2.71) | 1.47 (0.47, 4.57) | 2.16 (0.88, 5.31) |
| Carriage 6 mo → LRTI 1 y | 1.73 (0.81, 3.70) | 1.32 (0.66, 2.64) | 0.78 (0.36, 1.68) | 0.82 (0.40, 1.70) | 1.14 (0.57, 2.30) |
| Carriage 1 y → LRTI 2 y | 1.39 (0.65, 2.96) | 1.47 (0.83, 2.59) | 1.0.31 (0.72, 2.37) | 0.81 (0.46, 1.41) | 1.44 (0.81, 2.56) |
| Carriage 2 y → LRTI 2 y | 0.18 (0.02, 1.67) | 0.44 (0.16, 1.22) | 1.29 (0.56, 3.01) | 1.07 (0.44, 2.57) | 0.70 (0.28, 1.73) |
| Carriage 3 y → LRTI 4 y | 0.50 (0.13, 1.92) | 1.63 (0.41, 6.40) | 1.35 (0.32, 5.65) | 2.73 (0.84, 8.88) | 1.27 (0.45, 3.62) |
| LRTI 6 wk → carriage 6 mo | 2.64 (0.30, 22.81) | ‐‐ | 0.74 (0.07, 9.93) | ‐‐ | ‐‐ |
| LRTI 6 mo → carriage 1 y | 1.04 (0.37, 2.89) | 1.64 (0.76, 3.47) | 2.69 (1.21, 5.83)** | 1.47 (0.65, 3.26) | 2.26 (0.77, 6.51) |
| LRTI 1 y → carriage 2 y | 0.96 (0.36, 2.60) | 0.47 (0.21, 1.05) | 1.40 (0.74, 2.66) | 0.73 (0.38, 1.41) | 1.07 (0.53, 2.16) |
| LRTI 2 y → carriage 3 y | 1.07 (0.50, 2.29) | 0.53 (0.25, 1.14) | 0.95 (0.48, 1.90) | 0.98 (0.52, 1.83) | 0.75 (0.43, 1.30) |
| LRTI 4 y → carriage 6 y | 0.61 (0.21, 1.78) | 2.11 (0.56, 7.72) | 0.66 (0.08, 5.66) | 2.19 (0.87, 5.46) | 2.11 (0.85, 5.21) |
| Cross‐sectional effects | |||||
| Carriage ↔ LRTI 6 wk | ‐‐ | ‐‐ | ‐‐ | ‐‐ | ‐‐ |
| Carriage ↔ LRTI 6 mo | 0.53 (0.19, 1.47) | 0.90 (0.38, 2.16) | 2.78 (1.30, 5.93)* | 1.73 (0.75, 4.01) | 1.89 (0.78, 4.50) |
| Carriage ↔ LRTI 1 y | 0.60 (0.24, 1.50) | 0.96 (0.49, 1.90) | 0.24 (0.10, 0.59)** | 0.69 (0.36, 1.33) | 0.50 (0.24, 1.05) |
| Carriage ↔ LRTI 2 y | 1.12 (0.45, 2.82) | 0.97 (0.50, 1.89) | 0.88 (0.47, 1.65) | 1.65 (0.88, 3.10) | 1.10 (0.55, 2.21) |
| Carriage ↔ LRTI 3 y | 1.31 (0.43, 4.03) | 1.10 (0.39, 3.09) | 0.70 (0.24, 2.01) | 1.25 (0.50, 1.22) | 1.14 (0.48, 2.69) |
| Carriage ↔ LRTI 6 y | 1.42 (0.64, 3.13) | 0.32 (0.06, 1.62) | 0.26 (0.03, 2.31) | 0.68 (0.25, 1.85) | 0.47 (0.19, 1.16) |
Associations of S aureus, H influenzae, M catarrhalis, S pneumoniae, and any nasopharyngeal carriage with lower respiratory tract infections and vice versa. Values are odds ratios (95% confidence interval) from cross‐lagged models. Models are adjusted for maternal history of asthma and atopy, education level, smoking during pregnancy, stress during pregnancy, parity and pet keeping, and child's gestational age at birth, breastfeeding, and day care attendance. Bold values indicate significant associations. For some associations, no effect estimate could be given due to limited power, as indicated by ‐‐. Lower respiratory tract infections (LRTI). Nasopharyngeal (NP).