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The different printing technologies (3D, 3D bioprinting, 4D, and 4D bioprinting). (A,B) shows conventional 3D printing and bioprinting techniques. (C,D) For-dimensional bioprinting is defined as 3D printing of cell-laden materials in which the printed structures would be able to respond to external stimulus due to stimuli-responsive bioinks or internal cell forces. Reproduced with permission from Ashammakhi et al. (2018).
