Table 1.
Maternal and child characteristics stratified for gestational diabetes status [data are presented as mean (± SD) or as n (%)]
| Variable | All | GDM-negative | GDM-positive | P value GDM + vs − | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| All | Diet | Medicated | ||||
| N = 201 | N = 102 | N = 96 | N = 60 | N = 36 | ||
| Mother at gestation | ||||||
| Age (first trimester) [y] | 33.5 ± 4.5 | 33.2 ± 4.7 | 33.9 ± 4.2 | 33.5 ± 4.3 | 34.6 ± 3.9 | 0.26 |
| Pre-gestational BMI [kg/m2] | 30.7 ± 5.6 | 31.1 ± 5.4 | 30.2 ± 5.9 | 29.4 ± 5.6 | 31.5 ± 6.3 | 0.26 |
| Pre-gestational BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2 | 34 (17%) | 9 (8.9%) | 24 (25%) | 14 (24%) | 10 (28%) | 0.005 |
| Pre-gestational BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2 | 128 (64%) | 74 (73%) | 52 (55%) | 31 (53%) | 21 (58%) | 0.008 |
| First- to third-trimester weight gain [kg] | 6.7 ± 4.5 | 7.5 ± 4.5 | 6.0 ± 4.5 | 6.4 ± 4.4 | 5.2 ± 4.6 | 0.022 |
| First-trimester fasting glucose [mmol/L] | 5.0 ± 0.4 | 4.9 ± 0.3 | 5.2 ± 0.4 | 5.1 ± 0.4 | 5.4 ± 0.5** | < 0.0001 |
| First-trimester HbA1C [% (mmol/mol)] | 5.3 ± 0.3 (34 ± 3.3) | 5.2 ± 0.3 (33 ± 3.3) | 5.4 ± 0.3 (36 ± 3.3) | 5.4 ± 0.2 (36 ± 2.2) | 5.5 ± 0.2 (37 ± 2.2) | < 0.0001 |
| First-trimester HOMA-IR | 1.8 ± 1.2 | 1.7 ± 0.9 | 2.1 ± 1.5 | 1.9 ± 1.4 | 2.4 ± 1.6 | 0.03 |
| Second-trimester fasting glucose [mmol/L] | 4.9 ± 0.5 | 4.7 ± 0.3 | 5.1 ± 0.5 | 5.1 ± 0.3 | 5.3 ± 0.6* | < 0.0001 |
| Second-trimester HOMA-IR | 2.1 ± 1.3 | 1.8 ± 0.8 | 2.4 ± 1.7 | 2.1 ± 1.3 | 2.9 ± 2.1* | 0.004 |
| Third-trimester fasting glucose [mmol/L] | 4.8 ± 04 | 4.7 ± 0.3 | 5.0 ± 0.4 | 4.9 ± 0.4 | 5.0 ± 0.4 | < 0.0001 |
| Third-trimester HbA1C [% (mmol/mol)] | 5.5 ± 0.3 (37 ± 3.3) | 5.4 ± 0.3 (36 ± 3.3) | 5.6 ± 0.3 (38 ± 3.3) | 5.6 ± 0.3 (38 ± 3.3) | 5.6 ± 0.3 (38 ± 3.3) | 0.0001 |
| Third-trimester HOMA-IR | 2.7 ± 1.5 | 2.6 ± 1.3 | 2.8 ± 1.6 | 2.6 ± 1.7 | 3.1 ± 1.3 | 0.51 |
| Neonate | ||||||
| Birth weight Z-score | 0.22 ± 0.98 | 0.17 ± 1.10 | 0.29 ± 0.83 | 0.29 ± 0.82 | 0.29 ± 0.87 | 0.41 |
| Hypoglycaemia | 21 (10%) | 3 (2.9%) | 18 (19%) | 10 (17%) | 8 (22%) | 0.0003 |
| Child at follow-up | ||||||
| Boys | 111 (55%) | 58 (57%) | 51 (53%) | 31 (52%) | 20 (56%) | 0.67 |
| Age [y] | 6.09 ± 0.49 | 6.04 ± 0.47 | 6.11 ± 0.48 | 6.21 ± 0.51 | 5.95 ± 0.39 | 0.30 |
| Weight [kg] | 23.8 ± 4.1 | 23.6 ± 4.3 | 23.9 ± 3.9 | 23.9 ± 3.9 | 23.9 ± 3.9 | 0.64 |
| Height [cm] | 119.1 ± 6.6 | 118.9 ± 6.9 | 119.3 ± 6.3 | 120.3 ± 5.9 | 117.7 ± 6.6 | 0.65 |
| BMI Z-score | 0.45 ± 0.93a | 0.41 ± 1.01 | 0.5 ± 0.84 | 0.35 ± 0.77 | 0.76 ± 0.9 | 0.50 |
| Lean body mass [kg] | 16.5 ± 2.4 | 16.5 ± 2.5 | 16.6 ± 2.3 | 16.8 ± 2.3 | 16.3 ± 2.2 | 0.62 |
| Fat mass [kg] | 7.2 ± 2.0 | 7.2 ± 2.1 | 7.3 ± 1.9 | 7.1 ± 1.9 | 7.6 ± 2.0 | 0.71 |
| Body fat [%] | 30.0 ± 4.0 | 30.0 ± 4.1 | 30.2 ± 3.8 | 29.4 ± 3.5 | 31.3 ± 4.2 | 0.74 |
| Systolic BP Z-score | 0.39 ± 0.59a | 0.35 ± 0.61 | 0.43 ± 0.57 | 0.41 ± 0.55 | 0.48 ± 0.60 | 0.31 |
| Diastolic BP Z-score | 0.59 ± 0.52a | 0.58 ± 0.49 | 0.61 ± 0.56 | 0.56 ± 0.53 | 0.68 ± 0.60 | 0.74 |
BMI body mass index, HbA1C glycated haemoglobin, HOMA-IR homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance [fasting insulin (μU/ml) × fasting glucose (mmol/L)/22.5], BP blood pressure;
*P ≤ 0.05, and **P ≤ 0.001 between diet and medicated GDM (ANOVA with post hoc Tukey's HSD);
aP ≤ 0.0001 compared with the reference population
Significant results are bolded (P ≤ 0.05)