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. 2020 Jun 19;26(4-5):233–244. doi: 10.1159/000508304

Table 3.

Initiation of alcohol drinking, binge drinking, cigarette smoking, cannabis use, and drug use and development of related use disorders from baseline to 5-year follow-up

B OR 95% CI Wald d
Drinking alcohol: ADHD S− (161/333), ADHD S+ (9/15)a
 b1(CD → SU w/ADHD & SS) 0.36 1.43 0.77–2.65 1.27 0.20
 b2(SS → SU w/ADHD & CD) −0.01 1.00 0.78–1.27 0.01 0.00
 c(ADHD → SU) 0.47 1.60 0.56–4.60 0.76 0.26
 c‘(ADHD → SU w/CD & SS) 0.42 1.52 052–4.42 0.59 0.23
Binge drinking: ADHD S− (446/2,410), ADHD S+ (19/87)
 b1(CD → SU w/ADHD & SS) 0.01 1.00 0.75–1.35 0.01 0.00
 b2(SS → SU w/ADHD & CD) 0.21 1.23 1.08–1.39 10.46*** 0.11
 c(ADHD → SU) 0.19 1.21 0.72–2.03 0.51 0.11
 c‘(ADHD → SU w/CD & SS) 0.14 1.14 0.68–1.93 0.25 0.07
AUD: ADHD S− (240/3,992), ADHD S+ (19/140)
 b1(CD → SU w/ADHD & SS) 0.67 1.96 1.46–2.61 20.52*** 0.37
 b2(SS → SU w/ADHD & CD) 0.46 1.59 1.34–1.87 29.66*** 0.26
 c(ADHD → SU) 0.95 2.59 1.56–4.28 13.70*** 0.53
 c‘(ADHD → SU w/CD & SS) 0.82 2.78 1.36–3.80 9.87** 0.45
Cigarette smoking: ADHD S− (329/2,441), ADHD S+ (17/84)
 b1(CD → SU w/ADHD & SS) 0.07 1.07 0.76–1.50 0.14 0.04
 b2(SS → SU w/ADHD & CD) 0.31 1.36 1.18–1.57 18.00*** 0.17
 c(ADHD → SU) 0.48 1.62 0.94–2.79 2.98 0.27
 c‘(ADHD → SU w/CD & SS) 0.33 1.27 0.79–2.44 1.27 0.13
Nicotine dependence: ADHD S− (203/3,951), ADHD S+ (9/157)
 b1(CD → SU w/ADHD & SS) 0.31 1.36 0.96–1.92 2.99 0.17
 b2(SS → SU w/ADHD & CD) 0.16 1.17 0.99–1.39 3.20 0.09
 c(ADHD → SU) 0.13 1.14 0.57–2.27 0.14 0.07
 c‘(ADHD → SU w/CD & SS) 0.04 1.05 0.52–2.09 0.02 0.03
Cannabis use: ADHD S− (461/3,127), ADHD S+ (22/97)
 b1(CD → SU w/ADHD & SS) 0.40 1.49 1.15–1.93 9.04** 0.22
 b2(SS → SU w/ADHD & CD) 0.46 1.58 1.39–1.79 50.83*** 0.25
 c(ADHD → SU) 0.53 1.70 1.05–2.77 4.59* 0.29
 c‘(ADHD → SU w/CD & SS) 0.41 1.50 0.92–2.47 2.60 0.22
CUD: ADHD S− (164/4,080), ADHD S+ (11/154)
 b1(CD → SU w/ADHD & SS) 0.75 2.11 1.50–2.97 18.36*** 0.41
 b2(SS → SU w/ADHD & CD) 0.45 1.56 1.28–1.91 19.20*** 0.25
 c(ADHD → SU) 0.65 1.91 1.01–3.60 3.96* 0.36
 c‘(ADHD → SU w/CD & SS) 0.43 1.54 0.81–2.94 1.73 0.24
Hallucinogens: ADHD S− (139/4,256), ADHD S+ (15/172)
 b1(CD → SU w/ADHD & SS) 0.50 1.65 1.12–2.38 7.12** 0.28
 b2(SS → SU w/ADHD & CD) 0.86 2.35 1.87–2.96 53.55*** 0.47
 c(ADHD → SU) 1.03 2.80 1.60–4.89 13.06*** 0.57
 c‘(ADHD → SU w/CD & SS) 0.69 2.00 1.12–3.56 5.55* 0.38
Meth-/amphetamines: ADHD S− (118/4,276), ADHD S+ (16/178)
 b1(CD → SU w/ADHD & SS) 0.68 1.97 1.35–2.88 12.17*** 0.37
 b2(SS → SU w/ADHD & CD) 0.78 2.17 1.70–2.78 37.98*** 0.43
 c(ADHD → SU) 1.33 3.78 2.18–6.55 22.43*** 0.73
 c‘(ADHD → SU w/CD & SS) 1.04 2.83 1.60–4.99 12.83*** 0.57
Ecstasy/MDMA: ADHD S− (256/4,264), ADHD S+ (25/175)
 b1(CD → SU w/ADHD & SS) 0.54 1.72 1.30–2.27 14.62*** 0.30
 b2(SS → SU w/ADHD & CD) 0.94 2.57 2.16–3.06 111.13*** 0.52
 c(ADHD → SU) 0.94 2.56 1.64–3.98 17.22*** 0.52
 c‘(ADHD → SU w/CD & SS) 0.59 1.81 1.14–2.87 2.65* 0.33
Cocaine/crack/freebase: ADHD S− (201/4,289), ADHD S+ (17/174)
 b1(CD → SU w/ADHD & SS) 0.90 2.46 1.82–3.32 34.54*** 0.50
 b2(SS → SU w/ADHD & CD) 0.71 2.02 1.67–2.45 52.95*** 0.39
 c(ADHD → SU) 0.77 2.17 1.29–3.65 8.45** 0.43
 c‘(ADHD → SU w/CD & SS) 0.43 1.54 0.90–2.65 2.46 0.24
ADHD medication: ADHD S− (58/4,328), ADHD S+ (9/177)
 b1(CD → SU w/ADHD & SS) 0.20 1.25 0.70–2.16 0.49 0.12
 b2(SS → SU w/ADHD & CD) 0.64 1.90 1.36–2.65 14.14*** 0.35
 c(ADHD → SU) 1.46 4.29 2.08–8.86 15.12*** 0.80
 c‘(ADHD → SU w/CD & SS) 1.23 3.41 1.63–7.16 10.55** 0.68
Sedatives: ADHD S− (196/4,220), ADHD S+ (17/165)
 b1(CD → SU w/ADHD & SS) 0.41 1.51 1.08–2.12 5.65* 0.23
 b2(SS → SU w/ADHD & CD) 0.03 1.03 0.87–1.22 0.12 0.02
 c(ADHD → SU) 0.81 2.24 1.33–3.78 9.10** 0.45
 c‘(ADHD → SU w/CD & SS) 0.78 2.17 1.28–3.40 8.19** 0.43

Language was included as a covariate; the Wald statistic follows a χ2 distribution; d = Cohen's d. Hallucinogens include psilocybin (“magic mushrooms”), LSD, and PCP; ADHD medication includes methylphenidate and amphetamine sulphate; and sedatives include tranquilisers and hypnotics. Heroin was excluded due to small sample sizes. See Figure 1 for the structure of the statistical analyses. ADHD, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder; ADHD S–, ADHD screened negative group (ASRS score <14); ADHD S+, ADHD screened positive group (ASRS score ≥14); ASRS, Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale; CD, conduct disorder; CI, confidence interval; OR, odds ratio; SS, sensation seeking; SU, substance use; AUD, alcohol use disorder; CUD, cannabis use disorder.

*

p < 0.05.

**

p < 0.01.

***

p < 0.001.

a

Numbers in parentheses following the ADHD S− and ADHD S+ groups indicate the number of participants who initiated use or developed the disorder/total number of non-users or participants who did not have the disorder at baseline.