Table 2.
Least squares mean (95% CI) concentrations of inflammation, lipid, and liver enzyme biomarkers among middle-aged women with history of gestational diabetes, according to lifetime duration of lactation*
| Lifetime duration of lactation (months) | |||||
| 0 | 1–12 | 12–24 | >24 | P linear trend | |
| CRP, mg/L | |||||
| Model 1 | 2.01 (1.57 to 2.59) | 1.91 (1.63 to 2.23) | 1.62 (1.38 to 1.91) | 1.44 (1.25 to 1.67) | 0.003 |
| Model 2 | 2.06 (1.59 to 2.66) | 1.99 (1.70 to 2.34) | 1.64 (1.40 to 1.94) | 1.36 (1.16 to 1.59) | 0.0006 |
| Model 3 | 1.90 (1.47 to 2.45) | 1.98 (1.68 to 2.32) | 1.67 (1.42 to 1.97) | 1.39 (1.19 to 1.62) | 0.003 |
| IL-6, pg/mL | |||||
| Model 1 | 1.30 (0.98 to 1.73) | 1.14 (0.96 to 1.36) | 1.03 (0.86 to 1.24) | 0.96 (0.81 to 1.13) | 0.046 |
| Model 2 | 1.33 (1.00 to 1.77) | 1.20 (1.00 to 1.77) | 1.03 (0.86 to 1.24) | 0.91 (0.76 to 1.09) | 0.01 |
| Model 3 | 1.25 (0.94 to 1.68) | 1.19 (0.99 to 1.42) | 1.04 (0.87 to 1.25) | 0.93 (0.78 to 1.11) | 0.04 |
| Cholesterol, mg/dL | |||||
| Model 1 | 189 (182 to 197) | 197 (192 to 202) | 201 (196 to 206) | 201 (196 to 206) | 0.04 |
| Model 2 | 189 (182 to 197) | 197 (192 to 202) | 201 (196 to 206) | 200 (195 to 205) | 0.07 |
| Model 3 | 190 (182 to 198) | 198 (193 to 203) | 201 (196 to 206) | 200 (195 to 205) | 0.18 |
| Triglycerides, mg/dL | |||||
| Model 1 | 132 (119 to 146) | 116 (109 to 123) | 115 (107 to 122) | 109 (103 to 116) | 0.007 |
| Model 2 | 130 (118 to 144) | 115 (108 to 123) | 115 (108 to 123) | 110 (103 to 117) | 0.03 |
| Model 3 | 128 (115 to 142) | 115 (108 to 123) | 115 (108 to 123) | 110 (103 to 117) | 0.04 |
| HDL-C, mg/dL | |||||
| Model 1 | 56.7 (53.2 to 60.4) | 59.8 (57.5 to 62.2) | 60.9 (58.5 to 63.5) | 60.8 (58.6 to 63.1) | 0.15 |
| Model 2 | 57.1 (53.5 to 60.9) | 60.1 (57.7 to 62.5) | 60.8 (58.4 to 63.4) | 60.5 (58.2 to 63.0) | 0.31 |
| Model 3 | 58.3 (54.7 to 62.2) | 60.1 (57.8 to 62.6) | 60.7 (58.2 to 63.2) | 60.2 (57.9 to 62.6) | 0.66 |
| LDL-C, mg/dL | |||||
| Model 1 | 101 (95 to 108) | 108 (104 to 112) | 110 (106 to 115) | 110 (106 to 114) | 0.11 |
| Model 2 | 101 (95 to 108) | 108 (104 to 113) | 111 (106 to 115) | 110 (106 to 115) | 0.12 |
| Model 3 | 102 (95 to 109) | 109 (104 to 113) | 111 (106 to 115) | 109 (105 to 114) | 0.27 |
| ALT, U/L | |||||
| Model 1 | 21.1 (19.1 to 23.2) | 20.1 (19.0 to 21.4) | 19.8 (18.6 to 21.1) | 19.2 (18.1 to 20.3) | 0.10 |
| Model 2 | 20.5 (18.6 to 22.6) | 19.9 (18.7 to 21.2) | 19.8 (18.6 to 21.1) | 19.6 (18.4 to 20.8) | 0.49 |
| Model 3 | 20.4 (18.5 to 22.6) | 19.9 (18.7 to 21.2) | 19.8 (18.6 to 21.1) | 19.6 (18.4 to 20.8) | 0.53 |
| AST, U/L | |||||
| Model 1 | 26.8 (24.9 to 28.9) | 25.6 (24.5 to 26.8) | 25.3 (24.1to 26.6) | 25.5 (24.4 to 26.6) | 0.47 |
| Model 2 | 26.5 (24.6 to 28.6) | 25.5 (24.3 to 26.7) | 25.3 (24.1 to 26.6) | 25.7 (24.6 to 26.9) | 0.84 |
| Model 3 | 26.6 (24.6 to 28.7) | 25.5 (24.3 to 26.7) | 25.3 (24.1 to 26.6) | 25.7 (24.6 to 26.9) | 0.83 |
| GGT, U/L | |||||
| Model 1 | 19.0 (16.4 to 21.9) | 19.8 (18.1 to 21.7) | 18.5 (16.8 to 20.3) | 17.0 (15.6 to 18.5) | 0.02 |
| Model 2 | 18.3 (15.8 to 21.2) | 19.6 (17.9 to 21.5) | 18.4 (16.8 to 20.2) | 17.4 (15.9 to 19.0) | 0.17 |
| Model 3 | 18.2 (15.7 to 21.1) | 19.6 (17.8 to 21.5) | 18.4 (16.7 to 20.1) | 17.5 (16.0 to 19.2) | 0.22 |
*Model 1 is adjusted for age at follow-up blood draw. Model 2 is additionally adjusted for ethnicity (white/non-white), family history of diabetes (yes/no), parity, age at first birth (<25, 25–29, 30–34, and ≥35 years), and menopausal status at follow-up blood draw (yes/no). Model 3 is adjusted for model 2 in addition to ever smoking (yes/no), diet quality (high/low), physical activity (high/low), and prepregnancy BMI (≤25, 25–30, and >30 kg/m2).
ALT, alanine aminotransferase; AST, aspartate aminotransferase; BMI, body mass index; CRP, C reactive protein; GGT, gamma-glutamyl transferase; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; IL-6, interleukin-6; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol.