Table 2.

Representative examples of osteoinductive components that have been investigated in osteogenesis and bone regeneration

Components	Mechanism of action	Outcome	References
Pre-clinical studies
Dexamethasone	Reduction of phosphorylation of ser125	Upregulated osteogenic markers	[82]
Oxysterols	Induce the expression of the Hh target genes	Upregulated osteocalcin (OCN) and RUNX2	[83]
Purmorphamine	Activation of hedgehog signaling pathway	Upregulated RUNX2 gene during osteoblast differentiation	[84]
Simvastatins	–	Enhanced RUNX2, osterix, OCN, and COlla1	[85]
W9 (YCWSQYLCY) peptide	Activation of TGF and the PI3 kinase/Akt signaling pathway	Promote osteogenesis	[86]
IRW peptide	Activation of PI3K-Akt-RUNX2 pathway	Promote osteogenesis	[87]
GRGDS peptide	–	Promote osteoblast adhesion and proliferation	[88]
Clinical studies
SP1	Reduction of osteoclast deposition on bone surfaces	Bone regeneration	[89]
BMP-2/7	–	Stimulate osteogenesis	[90]
Fingolimod (FTY720)	Immunomodulating drug derived from the natural product myriocin also known as fingolimod or Gilenya	Enhanced bone formation	[91]
PDGF	–	Comparable fusion rates and less pain in group with PDGF-BB treatment as compared with autograft treatment group	[92]
FGF-2	–	Enhance healing of periodontal defects	[93]
P-15	–	Significant increase in bone mineral density of bone around the implants	[94]