Table 1.
Intervention studies that include the three way interaction (gut microbiota, inflammation, and glucose metabolism).
| Type | Intervention | Species | Gut microbiota | Inflammation | Glucose metabolism | Refernces |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Diet | Diet-induced weight-loss and weight-stabilization intervention | 38 obese and 11 overweight humans (♂♀) | Gene richness ↑ | hsCRP ↓ | Weight ↓ HOMA-IR ↓ Fasting insulin ↓ Fasting glucose ↓ | (151) |
| Dietary scheme based on whole grains, traditional Chinese medicinal foods and prebiotics | 93 obese humans (♂♀) | Enterobacteriaceae ↓ Desulfovibrionaceae ↓ Bifidobacteriaceae ↑ Gut permeability ↓ |
LBP ↓ TNF ↓ IL-6 ↓ Adiponectin ↑ CRP ↓ |
Weight ↓ Fasting glucose ↓ HOMA-IR ↓ HbA1c ↑ |
(305) | |
| Isocaloric low-carbohydrate diet with increased protein content | 10 obese humans with NAFLD (♂♀) | Fecal SCFAs ↓ Folate-producing Streptococcus ↑ |
TNF ↓ IL-6 ↓ |
Weight ↓ Liver fat ↓ Fasting insulin ↓ HOMA-IR ↓ | (307) | |
| Prebiotics | Oligofructose enriched diet | Ob/ob and DIO mice | Firmicutes ↓ Bacteroidetes ↑ A. muciniphila ↑ Intestinal L-cells ↑ |
Plasma LPS ↓ Colonic IL-1 expression ↓ |
Weight ↓ Food intake ↓ Glucose tolerance ↑ GLP-1 ↑ | (308) |
| Oligofructose-enriched inulin or maltodextrin placebo | 42 healthy children with overweight or obesity (♂♀) | Bifidobacterium spp. ↑ Bacteroides vulgatus ↓ Alpha diversity ↓ |
IL-6 ↓ | Weight ↓ No differences in fasting glucose, insulin, or insulin resistance | (309) | |
| Daily oral Berberine | DIO rats (♂) | Diversity ↓ Fecal SCFA ↑ Blautia ↑ Allobaculum ↑ |
LBP ↓ MCP-1 ↓ Leptin ↓ Adiponectin ↑ |
Weight ↓ Food intake ↓ Fasting glucose ↓ Fasting insulin ↓ HOMA-IR ↓ | (310) | |
| Oligofructose or placebo enriched diet | Ob/ob mice | Total bacteria ↑ Bifidobacterium spp ↑ Lactobacillus spp ↑ Clostridium coccoides–Eubacterium rectale cluster ↑ Gut permeability ↓ Intestinal tight junctions ↑ |
Plasma LPS ↓ Plasma Il-1α ↓ Plasma Il-1β ↓ Plasma MCP-1 ↓ Plasma TNF ↓ Plasma IFN-γ ↓ Plasma IL-6 ↓ Plasma IL-10 ↓ |
Portal GLP-1 ↑ Portal GLP-2 ↑ | (311) | |
| Probiotics | Lactobacillus reuteri or placebo | 44 T2D humans (♂♀) |
L. reuteri ↑ Serum deoxycholic acid↑ Serum unconjugated bile acids ↑ |
No changes | Insulin sensitivity ↑ | (312) |
| Lactobacillus reuteri or placebo | 21 lean and obese glucose tolerant humans (♂♀) |
L. reuteri ↑ No changes |
No changes | Glucose stimulated GLP-1 ↑, GLP-2 ↑, insulin ↑, and C-peptide ↑ No changes in insulin sensitivity | (313) | |
| Single strain administration of Lactobacillus paracasei (LC), Lactobacillus rhamnosus (LR) or Bifidobacterium animalis (BA) | DIO mice (♂) | Shift toward lean microbiota type Cecal acetate (LC, LR) ↑ | CLS ↓ Liver and adipose tissue TNF expression (BA) ↓ Serum LBP (BA) ↓ |
Weight ↓ HOMA-IR (LR) ↓ Glucose tolerance ↑ | (314) | |
| Lactobacillus rhamnosus or placebo during weight loss and maintenance diet intervention | 125 obese humans (♂♀) | Lachnospiraceae (♀) ↓ | Leptin ↓ | Weight (♀) ↓ No changes | (315) | |
| Akkermansia muciniphila or placebo | Ob/ob and DIO mice | Mucus thickness ↑ No compositional changes |
Serum LPS ↓ | Fasting glucose ↓ Glucose tolerance ↑ | (316) | |
| Akkermansia muciniphila (pasteurized or live) or placebo | 32 overweight and obese insulin-resistant humans (♂♀) | No changes | White blood cells (past.) ↓Serum LPS (past.) ↓ | Fasting insulin (past.) ↓ Insulin resistance ↓ | (317) | |
| FMT | Metabolic syndrome (METS) or gastric bypass (RYGB) donor | 22 metabolic syndrome humans (♂) | Fecal and serum bile acids (METS) ↑ | Adipose expression of MCP-1 (RYGB) ↓ | Insulin sensitivity (METS) ↓ | (318) |
Summary of relevant findings that are discussed in this review.
hsCRP, highly sensitive C-reactive peptide; HOMA-IR, homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance; LBP, lipopolysaccharide binding protein; TNF, tumor necrosis factor; IL, interleukin; NAFLD, Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease; DIO, diet induced obesity; MCP-1, Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1; SCFAs, short fain fatty acids; LPS, lipopolysaccharide; CLS, crown-like structure; FMT, fecal microbiota transplantation. ♂, male participants; ♀, female participants; Arrows, treatment leads to up or down regulation.