Table 1.

IL-1-mediated Mechanisms of Cancer Promotion

Angiogenesis, IL-1-dependent VEGF production, increased VEGFR

Generation of Myeloid-derived Suppressor Cells (MDSC)

Elevated IL-8 and chemokines, including monocyte chemotaxis (for MDSC)

Migration of endothelial precursors into tumors

Increased basic FGF, PDGF, IL-6 and other stromal growth factors

Neutrophil accumulation in tumor

Growth factor production (GM-CSF, FGF, IL-6, IL-1, chemokines)

Thrombocytosis, platelet-derived IL-1α

Induction of matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) for local spread

Cyclooxygenase (increased PGE2) for immunosuppression

Immunosuppression (increased PD-l ligand and CTLA-4)

Low IL-1Ra circulating levels due to high uric acid levels

Increased endothelial tissue factor for coagulopathy

Increased ICAM-1, increased VCAM-1 for local and metastatic tumor spread