Table 2.

Summary of the effect of sleep loss on cognition

Ability	Sample Characteristics	Younger	Older	References
Attention
	Humans
	Meta-analysis	Deficits seen after 24–48 hr SD		As reviewed by Lim & Dinges, 2010
	Mixed sex (∼20 years)	1 night PSR < no restriction		Rossa et al., 2014
	Young (∼22 years) & old (∼66 years) men	Young more impaired than older after 40 hr SD		Adam et al., 2006
	Young (∼21 years) & old (∼66 years) mixed-sex	Young more impaired than older after 24 hr SD		Duffy et al., 2009
	Young (∼23 years) & older (∼66 years) men	Young more impaired than older after 40 hr SD		Sagaspe et al., 2012
	Animals
	Age & sex not indicated	24 hr SD < BL		Christie et al., 2008
	Male rats (∼2-mo old)	28 hr PSR < BL 58–148 hr PSR = BL		Deurveilher et al., 2015
	Male rats	4–10 hr SD < no SD		Córdova et al., 2006
Non-spatial working memory
	Humans
	Meta-analysis	Deficits seen after 24–48 hr SD		As reviewed by Lim & Dinges, 2010
	Mixed-sex (22–38 years)	51–54 hr SD = BL		Tucker et al., 2010, 2011
Task switching
	Humans
	Patients with sleep-related breathing disorders < controls			As reviewed by Fulda & Schulz, 2003
	Mixed sex (∼21 years)	34–36 hr SD = controls		Binks et al., 1999
	Mixed sex (18–23 years)	5 days PSR < BL		Herscovitch et al., 1980
	Male (19–32 years)	1 night SD increases shift cost		Heuer et al., 2004
	Mixed sex (∼22 years)	1 night SD impairs preparatory bias		Jennings et al., 2003
	Animals
	Young male rats	3/24 hr fragmented sleep < controls		McCoy et al., 2007
Response inhibition
	Humans
	Mixed sex (∼24 years)	23/32/55 hr SD < BL		Drummond et al., 2006
	Mixed sex (∼37 years)	4 nights of PSR < control		Demos et al., 2016
	Young (∼23 years) & older (∼66 years) men	40 hr SD < BL for both groups equally		Sagaspe et al., 2012
	Mixed sex (∼20 years)	1 night PSR = no restriction		Rossa et al., 2014
	Animals
	Male rats	7 days of PSR < BL		Kamphuis et al., 2016
	3-mo old male rats	SD < sleep		Borquez et al., 2014
Decision making
	Humans
	Mixed sex (∼25 years)	49/75 hr SD < BL		Killgore et al., 2006, 2007
	Mixed sex (∼21 years)	1 night SD < Rested		Fraser et al., 2013
	Mixed sex (∼25 years)	51 hr SD = BL 75 hr SD < BL		Killgore et al., 2011
	Male (18–28 years)	36 hr SD < RW		Lei et al., 2016
	Mixed sex (∼20 years)	1 night PSR < no restriction		Rossa et al., 2014
	Mixed sex (∼37 years)	4 nights of PSR = control		Demos et al., 2016
	Review	Some complex tasks: SD = control		As reviewed by Harrison & Horne, 1980
	Review	Majority of studies: SD < control 5 studies: SD = control		As reviewed by Womack et al., 2013
	Mixed sex (18–30 years)	ED: 1 night SD < RM DD: 1 night SD < RM		Libedinsky et al. 2013,
Spatial memory
	Humans
	Male (18–30 years)	HPC activity during SWS resembled patterns during encoding of learning task		Peigneux et al., 2004
	Mixed sex (20–30 years)	SWS and not REM involved in spatial memory consolidation		Rasch et al., 2007
	Animals
	9-mo old male rats	HPC activity during SWS resembled patterns during encoding of novel environment		Wilson & McNaughton, 1994
	Female macaques (19–25 years)	4 hr PSD	Performance negatively related to sleep latency/wake bouts	Haley et al., 2009
	Male mouse lemurs (2–3 years)	Spatial learning: 8 hr SD = control Spatial retrieval: 8 hr SD < control		Rahman et al., 2013
	Male rats (6–7 mo old)	Reference memory: 4 hr PSD 0–4 hr post-learning < control Working memory: 4 hr PSD 0–4 hr post-learning = control		Smith et al., 1998
	Male rats	Reference memory: 24 hr sleep fragmentation < controls Working memory: 24 hr sleep fragmentation = controls		Ward et al., 2009
	Male rats	Working memory: 5–7 days of intermittent hypoxia < controls		Row et al., 2007
	Male rats (1–1.5 mo)	4 hr SD immediately post-learning < control 4 hr SD 4–8 hr post-learning = controls		Ishikawa et al., 2014
	Male rats	Sleep following encoding enhances spatial memory		Inostroza et al., 2013
	Male mice	6 hr SD immediately post-learning = control 6 hr SD 4–8 hr post-learning = controls		Palchykova et al., 2006
Verbal memory
	Humans
	21–35 years, sex not indicated	Free recall: 35 hr SD < rested state Recognition: 35 hr SD = rested state		Drummond et al., 2000
	Mixed sex (∼61 years) sample with obstructive sleep apnea		No association between objective sleep and word recall	Lutsey et al., 2016
	Mixed sex (∼23 years)	Sleep immediately after learning > wake		Sheth et al., 2012
	18–22 years. Sex unspecified	Sleep immediately after learning > wake		Ellenbogen et al., 2009
	Female (∼53 years)		Sleep duration & HFs predict delayed LM, but not CVLT	Maki et al., 2008
	Mixed sex sample (20–30 years)	Recollection: SWS > REM Familiarity: SWS = REM		Daurat et al., 2007
	Mixed sex sample (19–28 years)	Recollection: SWS > wake Familiarity: SWS/REM = Wake		Drosopoulos et al., 2005
	University students. Age & sex unspecified	Sleep immediately post learning = Delayed sleep		Nesca & Koulak, 1994
Visual recognition memory
	Humans
	Mixed sex (∼22 years)	1 night SD < control		Mograss et al., 2009
	Mixed sex (18–36 years)	1 night SD < control		Acheson et al., 2007
	Animals
	Male rats (1–1.5 mo)	4 hr SD immediately post-learning = control 4 hr SD 4–8 hr post-learning = controls		Ishikawa et al., 2014
	Male mice	6 hr SD immediately post-learning < control 6 hr SD 4–8 hr post-learning = controls		Palchykova et al., 2006

Note: BL = baseline; CVLT = California verbal learning test; DD = delay discounting; DLPFC = dorsolateral prefrontal cortex; DRST = delayed recognition span test; ED = effort discounting; HF = hot flash; hr = hour; LM = Logical memory; mo = month; PSD = paradoxical sleep deprivation; PSR = partial sleep restriction; SD = sleep deprivation; REM = rapid-eye movement; RW = rested wakefulness; SOP = self-ordered pointing test; SWS = slow-wave sleep.