Table 4.
Overview of large animal models of physical stimulation for cell-free cardiac regeneration.
| Physical Stimulation | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Therapy Delivery Method Target Area |
Animal Model Sample Size Follow-Up |
Main Effects | Proposed Mechanism | |
| SWT Extracorporeal Ischemic myocardium |
Pig (Ameroid constrictor) (n = 16) 8 w |
↑ LVEF ↑ WTF ↑ Angiogenesis |
↑ VEGF | [80] |
| SWT Invasive Ischemic myocardium |
Pig (AMI) (n = 11) 6 w |
↑ LVEF ↑ Angiogenesis |
[83] | |
| LLLT Invasive Bone marrow |
Pig (AMI) (n = 12) 90 d |
↓ Infarct size (−68%) ↑ Angiogenesis |
↑ VEGF ↑ Stem cell proliferation |
[84] |
| LLLT Invasive Ischemic myocardium |
Canine (AMI) (n = 22) 14 d |
↓ Infarct size (−49%) | [85] | |
| LLLT Invasive Ischemic myocardium |
Canine (AMI) (n = 50) 6 w |
↓ Infarct size (−52%) | [86] | |
| LHFS Invasive Ischemic myocardium |
Pig (AMI) (n = 11) 28 d |
EDV (32% vs. 12%) PCWP (+62% vs. −17%) |
↓ Adverse remodeling | [87] |
| SCS Intermittent/continuous T1-T3 |
Pig (AMI + Pacing) (n = 30) 10 w |
↑ LVEF ↑ +dP/dt |
↑ Sympathetic nerve sprouting | [89] |
| VNS Implanted Electrode Vagus nerve |
Canine (Microembolization) (n = 26) 6 m |
↑ LVEF ↓ ESV |
↓ Inflammation Macrophage modulation |
[90] |
Main effects are always reported as (control vs. treatment); if no second value is reported, the value is the calculated relative difference between treatment and control. Only significant values are reported in the main effects column (p < 0.05). Sample size reports the total number of animals enrolled in the study. Abbreviations: SWT: Shock wave therapy, LLLT: Low-level laser therapy, LHFS: Localized high-frequency electrical stimulation, SCS: Spinal cord stimulation, VNS: Vagus nerve stimulation.