Table 2.

HPI-related chronic extra-gastroduodenal diseases and disorders linked to osteoporotic fractures.

Iron deficiency and iron deficient anemia

Vitamin B12 deficiency and vitamin B12 deficient anemia

Immune thrombocytopenia

Cardiovascular diseases (CAD, myocardial infarction, hypertension, CHF)

Cerebrovascular diseases (stroke, TIA)

Neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer’s and vascular dementia, Parkinson’s disease)

Chronic kidney disease

Diabetes mellitus

Metabolic syndrome

Chronic liver disease (MAFLD; liver cirrhosis, hepatic encephalopathy)

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Depression, anxiety

Rheumatologic and autoimmune diseases (rheumatoid arthritis [?], ankylosing spondylitis, psoriatic arthritis, systemic vasculitis, autoimmune thyroid diseases, multiple sclerosis [?])

Eye diseases (open-angle glaucoma, neuromyelitis optica)

Malignant tumors (breast, colorectal and prostate cancers)

Malnutrition/low body weight

Malabsorption

Vitamin D insufficiency/deficiency

Dysregulation of gastrointestinal microbiota (dysbiosis)

Chronic inflammatory bowel diseases [?]

Celiac disease [?]

Obesity (morbid) [?]

Prostatitis

Pre-eclampsia

[?] Indicates that HPI according to some studies may protect against the disease. Abbreviations: CAD, coronary artery disease; CHF, congestive heart failure; MAFLD, metabolic associated fatty liver disease.