Table 2.
Most important biomarkers of oxidative stress associated with diabetic nephropathy (DN) used in clinical studies.
| Biomarker | Clinical Importance | Sample | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|
| MDA | Increased in patients with DN compared to those without | plasma serum |
[152,154] [153] |
| No difference in patients with or without DN | plasma | [155] | |
| No difference in patients with normo-, micro-, and macroalbuminuria | plasma, erythrocytes |
[156] |
|
| HNE | Increased in patients with DN compared to controls | plasma, leukocytes |
[157] |
| F2-isoprostanes | Increased in patients with DN compared to controls | plasma, leukocytes |
[157] |
| AOPP | Increased in patients with DN compared to those without | serum | [153] |
| Increased in patients with DN compared to those without | plasma | [160] | |
| AGE | Increased in patients with DN compared to those without | plasma | [154] |
| Increased in patients with DN compared to controls | plasma, urine |
[157] | |
| Increased in patients with renal failure compared to patients with normo-, micro-, and macroalbuminuria without renal failure | blood | [163] | |
| Increased in haemodialysis patients compared to non-dialysis; no difference in patients with normo-, micro-, and macroalbuminuria | serum | [106] | |
| No difference in patients with normo-, micro-, and macroalbuminuria | plasma | [156] | |
| Protein carbonyls |
Increased in patients with DN compared to those without | serum | [153] |
| Increased in patients with DN compared to controls | plasma, leukocytes |
[157] | |
| Nucleic acid oxidation |
Increased in patients with DN compared to those without | serum urine |
[153,167] [167] |
| Increased in patients with micro- and macroalbuminuria compared to normoalbuminuria; no difference in patients with micro- and macroalbuminuria | plasma | [156] | |
| Increased in patients with macroalbuminuria compared to micro- or normoalbuminuria | urine | [106,169] | |
| Prediction of the onset and progression of DN | urine | [170,171] | |
| No relationship with the onset and progression of DN | leukocytes | [171] | |
| No difference in patients with or without DN | urine | [165] | |
| TAS | Decreased in patients with DN compared to those without | plasma | [152] |
| No difference in patients with or without DN | plasma | [154] | |
| No difference in patients with normo-, micro-, and macroalbuminuria | erythrocytes | [156] | |
| SOD | Decreased in patients with DN compared to those without | serum | [153] |
| No difference in patients with or without DN | erythrocytes | [155] | |
| No difference in patients with normo-, micro-, and macroalbuminuria | plasma, erythrocytes |
[156] | |
| Catalase | No difference in patients with or without DN | serum erythrocytes |
[153] [181] |
| No difference in patients with normo-, micro-, and macroalbuminuria | plasma, erythrocytes |
[156] | |
| GSH-Px | No difference in patients with or without DN | serum | [153] |
| No difference in patients with normo-, micro-, and macroalbuminuria | plasma, erythrocytes |
[156] | |
| HO-1 | Increased in patients with DN, no difference in patients with micro- and macroalbuminuria | urine | [186] |
| Increased in patients with DN compared to controls | lymphocytes | [157] | |
| GSH | Decreased in patients with DN compared to those without | plasma | [152] |
| No difference in patients with normo-, micro-, and macroalbuminuria | plasma, erythrocytes |
[156] | |
| Vitamin C | Decreased in DN; correlation with UACR and eGFR | tissue | [156] |
| Vitamin E | No difference in patients with or without DN | tissue plasma |
[156] [154] |
MDA: malondialdehyde; HNE: 4-hydroxynonenal; AOPP: advanced oxidation protein products; AGE: advanced glycation end products; TAS: total antioxidant status; SOD: superoxide dismutase; GSH-Px: glutathione peroxidase; HO-1: haem oxygenase-1; GSH: glutathione.