Table 3.

Modulation of intestinal epithelial cells (physical barrier) induced by mycotoxins.

Model	Dose/Administration Route	Exposure Time	Technique	Damage	References
Aflatoxin
Caco-2 cells	AFB1: 1–50 μM	24 h	Alamar blue assay	Decrease cell viability	[77]
Caco-2 cells	AFB1: 0.01–1 μg/mL AFM1: 0.01–1 μg/mL	24, 48, 72 h	MTT assay	AFB1: decrease cell viability AFM1: decrease cell viability	[78]
Caco-2 cells	AFB1: 4 μg/mL AFM1: 4 μg/mL	24 h	MTT assay	AFB1: decrease cell viability AFM1: decrease cell viability	[79]
Caco-2 cells	AFM1: 0.0005–4 μg/mL	48 h	RNA-Seq, CCK-8 assay, Flow cytometry analysis	No effect on cell viability Induce cell cycle arrest	[80]
Caco-2/HT29-MTX cells	AFM1: 0.05, 4 μg/mL	48 h	CCK-8 assay	Decrease cell viability	[43]
Ochratoxin A
Caco-2/HT29-MTX cells	OTA: 0.05, 4 μg/mL	48 h	CCK-8 assay	Decrease cell viability	[43]
IPEC-J2 Cells	OTA: 0.5–32 μM	6, 12, 24 h	MTT assay	Decrease cell viability	[81]
Caco-2 cells	OTA: 0.1–30 μM	24 h	RNA-Seq, CCK-8 assay, Flow cytometry analysis	Decrease cell viability Arrest cell cycle in G2/M phase Induce apoptosis	[82]
Caco-2 cells	OTA: 0.0005–4 μg/mL	48 h	RNA-Seq, Flow cytometry analysis	Induce cell apoptosis	[83]
Caco-2 cells	OTA: 0.5–160 μM	48 h	MTS assay	Decrease cell viability	[84]
Deoxynivalenol
Caco-2 cells	DON: 0.25–30 μM	48 h	MTS assay	Decrease cell viability	[84]
HT-29 cells	DON: 125–2000 ng/mL	24 h	Western blot analysis	Induce cell apoptosis	[24]
IEC-6 cells	DON: 0.5–80 μM	24 h	Propidium iodide staining	Induce cell apoptosis	[85]
IPEC-J2 Cells	DON: 200, 2000 ng/mL	24, 48, 72 h	BrdU incorporation assay, Western blot analysis	Decrease cell viability Induce cell apoptosis	[86]
IPEC-1 cells, IPEC-J2 Cells	DON: 100–4000 ng/mL	24, 48, 72 h	MTT assay	Decrease cell viability	[87]
IPEC-J2 Cells	DON: 1–20 μg/mL	72 h	Flow cytometry analysis	Decrease cell viability Induce cell apoptosis	[88]
Zearalenone
IPEC-J2 Cells	ZEN: 40 μM	24 h	CCK-8 assay, Flow cytometry analysis, RNA-Seq	Decrease cell viability Arrest cell cycle in the G2/M phase	[89]
IPEC-J2 cells	ZEN: 6, 8 μg/mL	12–48 h	MTT assay, PCR	Decrease cell viability Induce cell apoptosis	[90]
IPEC-1 cells	ZEN: 0.1–100 μM	24 h	XTT assay, Microarray assay	Decrease cell viability	[91]
HCT116 cells	ZEN: 0–320 μM	48 h	Methylene blue staining assay	Increase cell viability at very low concentrations, decrease cell viability at high concentrations	[92]
Fumonisin B1
HT-29 cells	FB1: 1.1–69 μM	72 h	MTT assay	Decrease cell viability	[93]
Patulin
Caco-2 cells	PAT: 1–150 μM	24 h	MTT assay	Decrease cell viability	[94]
Caco-2 cells	PAT: 0.7–18 μM	24 h	MTT assay	Decrease cell viability	[95]
HCT116 cells	PAT: 5–25 μM	24 h	FDA assay, Western blot analysis	Decrease cell viability Induce cell apoptosis	[96]
HCT116 cells	PAT: 1.25–20 μM	1–4 days, 24 h	MTT assay, Western blot analysis	Decrease cell viability Induce apoptotic cells death	[97]
Citrinin
HCT116 cells	CTN: 150 μM	24 h	MTT assay	Decrease cell viability	[98]