Table 5.
Modulation of the intestinal chemical barrier induced by mycotoxins.
| Model | Dose/Administration Route | Exposure Time | Technique | Damage | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aflatoxin | |||||
| Cao-2/HT29-MTX cells | AFM1: 0.05, 4 μg/mL | 48 h | RT-PCR, ELISA |
Change the mRNA and protein expression level of MUC2, MUC5AC and MUC 5B in different proportions of co-cultured cells | [43] |
| Cao-2/HT29-MTX cells | AFM1: 12 μM | 48 h | RT-PCR, ELISA |
No effect on the mRNA and protein expression level of MUC2, MUC5AC and MUC 5B | [57] |
| Broiler chicks (Ross 308, n = 336) | AFs (AFB1+AFB2+AFG1+AFG2) 0.5 and 2 mg/kg feed Contaminated feed |
28, 42 days | Histological analysis | Increase in the goblet cell counts at 28 and 42 d | [104] |
| Broiler chicks (Ross 308, n = 336) | AFs (AFB1+AFB2+AFG1+AFG2) 0.5 and 2 ppm feed Contaminated feed |
28, 42 days | Histological analysis | Increase in the goblet cell counts at 28 and 42 d | [132] |
| Hens (Hyline W36, n = 64) | AFB1: 0.5–2.0 mg/kg | 14 days | Histological analysis | No changes in goblet cell number and crude mucin production | [133] |
| Ochratoxin A | |||||
| Cao-2/HT29-MTX cells | OTA: 0.05, 4 μg/mL | 48 h | RT-PCR, ELISA |
Modulate the mRNA level of MUC2, MUC5AC and MUC 5B, Increase in the protein expression of MUC2 and MUC5B at low concentration, while decrease at high concentration |
[43] |
| Broiler chickens (n = 80) | OTA: 50 μg/kg b.w. Oral administration |
21 days | Histological analysis | Decrease in goblet cells number in the small intestine | [107] |
| Deoxynivalenol | |||||
| HT29-16E cells | DON: 0.1–100 μM | 3–48 h | RT-PCR | Decrease in the transcript level of MUC1, MUC2 and MUC3 | [134] |
| Cao-2 cells | DON: 2 μM | 5 min–24 h | RT-PCR | Increase in the transcript level of MUC5AC | [135] |
| Cao-2/HT29-MTX cells | DON: 2 μM | 48 h | RT-PCR, ELISA |
Decrease in the transcript level of MUC5AC and MUC5B in the 90:10 ratio | [136] |
| IPEC-J2 cells | DON: 2 μM | 48 h | RT-PCR, ELISA |
Increase in the transcript level of β-defensin1 and β-defensin2, while no effect on protein expression | [137] |
| porcine intestinal explants | DON: 10 μM | 8, 12 h | RT-PCR | Decrease in the transcript level of MUC1, MUC2 and MUC3 | [134] |
| Fish (juvenile grass carp, n = 1440) | DON: 318–1515 μg/kg diet Contaminated feed |
60 days | RT-PCR | Decrease in the mRNA expression of MUC2 and AMPs (β-defensin1, hepcidin, LEAP-2A and LEAP-2B) in proximal, middle and distal intestine | [138] |
| Broiler Chickens (Ross 308, n = 112) | DON: 4.6 mg/kg feed Contaminated feed |
15 days | RT-PCR | Decrease in the mRNA expression of MUC2 in duodenum | [139] |
| Mice (BALB/c, n = 42) | DON: 3.0 mg/kg Gavage |
15 days | RT-PCR | Decrease in the mRNA expression of MUC2 | [140] |
| Mice (C57BL/6, n = 72) | DON: 2 mg/kg b.w. Oral administration |
1–12 days | Immunohistochemistry staining | Decrease in the MUC2+ cells and LYZ+ cells number in jejunum | [110] |
| Mice (C57BL/6, n = 72) | DON: 2 mg/kg b.w. Oral administration |
14 days | Immunohistochemistry staining | Decrease in the MUC2+ cells and LYZ+ cells number in jejunum | [111] |
| Pig (piglet, n = 24) | DON: 3.0 mg/kg Contaminated feed |
35 days | Histological analysis | Decrease in the goblet cells number in jejunum and ileum | [121] |
| Pig (piglet, n = 20) | DON: 1.5 mg/kg Contaminated feed |
28 days | Histological analysis | Decrease in the number of goblet cells in jejunum and ileum | [115] |
| Mice (BALB/c, n = 42) | DON: 3.0 mg/kg Gavage |
15 days | Histological analysis | Decrease in the goblet cells number | [140] |
| Pig (piglet, n = 24) | DON: 50 μg/kg b.w. Contaminated feed |
15 days | Histological analysis | Decrease in the goblet cells number in villi, but no effects at crypts level | [112] |
| Pig (growing pigs, n = 24) | DON: 3, 6, 12 mg/kg feed Contaminated feed |
21 days | Histological analysis | Decrease in the goblet cells number of jejunum of pigs fed with diets 6 mg/kg DON-contaminated | [141] |
| Pig (gilt, n = 72) | DON: 12 μg/kg b.w. Contaminated feed |
7–42 days | Histological analysis | No effect on the goblet cells number of duodenum | [142] |
| Zearalenone | |||||
| Cao-2 cells | ZEN: 40 μM | 5 min–24 h | RT-PCR | Decrease in the mRNA expression of MUC5AC | [135] |
| Cao-2/HT29-MTX cells | ZEN: 40 μM | 48 h | RT-PCR, ELISA |
Decrease in the transcript level of MUC5AC | [136] |
| IPEC-J2 cells | ZEN: 40 μM | 48 h | RT-PCR, ELISA |
Increase in the transcript level of β-defensin1 and β-defensin2, while no effect on protein expression | [137] |
| Pig (gilt, n = 72) | ZEN: 40 μg/kg b.w. Contaminated feed |
7–42 days | Histological analysis | No effect on the goblet cells number of duodenum | [142] |
| Fumonisin B1 | |||||
| IPEC-J2 cells | FB1: 40 μM | 48 h | RT-PCR, ELISA |
Increase in the mRNA expression of β-defensin1 and β-defensin2, while no effect on protein expression | [137] |
| Pig (piglet, n = 24) | DON: 6.0 mg/kg Contaminated feed |
35 days | Histological analysis | Inductive effect on goblet cell in jejunum | [121] |
| T-2 toxin | |||||
| HT-29 cells Cao-2 cells |
T-2: 50–100 ng/mL | 24 h | Immunofluorescence staining, Western blot analysis |
Decrease in the mucus layer in Caco-2 cells and HT-29 cells Decrease the protein expression of MUC2 |
[124] |
| Chickens (n = 20) | T-2: 145 μg/kg diet Contaminated feed |
14 days | RT-PCR | Increase MUC2 mRNA expression level in jejunum | [143] |
| Nivalenol | |||||
| Cao-2/HT29-MTX cells | NIV: 2 μM | 48 h | RT-PCR, ELISA |
Decrease in the mRNA expression of MUC5AC and MUC5B in the 90:10 ratio | [136] |
| IPEC-J2 cells | NIV: 2 μM | 48 h | RT-PCR, ELISA |
Increase in the transcript level of β-defensin1 and β-defensin2, while no effect on protein expression | [137] |