Table 6.
Modulation of the intestinal immunological barrier induced by mycotoxins.
| Model | Dose/Administration Route | Exposure Time | Technique | Damage | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aflatoxin | |||||
| Mice (Balb/c, n = 60) | AFB1: 100 μg/kg b.w. AFM1: 100 μg/kg b.w. Oral administration |
14 days | Western blot analysis | AFB1: Decrease the protein level of TNF-α AFM1: Decrease the protein level of TNF-α |
[100] |
| Pig (piglet, n = 24) | AFB1: 320 ppb Contaminated feed |
30 days | ELISA | Decrease in the protein expression of IL-1β, IL-6, IFN-γ, TNF-α and in duodenum | [147] |
| Broiler (Cobb, n = 576) | AFB1: 40 μg/kg Contaminated feed |
21 days | RT-PCR | Decrease in the transcript level of sIgA | [102] |
| Broiler chicks (Ross 308, n = 336) | AFs (AFB1+AFB2+AFG1+AFG2) 0.5 and 2 mg/kg feed Contaminated feed |
28, 42 days | Histological analysis | Increase in the number and diameter of lamina propria lymphoid follicles in jejunum | [104] |
| Shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei, n = 100) | AFB1: 5 ppm Contaminated feed |
30 days | RNA-Seq | Identify 7 process or pathways related to immune system | [148] |
| Broiler chickens (Cobb 500, n = 240) | AFB1: 400 ppb Contaminated feed |
21 days | Immunohistochemistry | Decrease in the CD4+ cells number in jejunum | [149] |
| Ochratoxin A | |||||
| Caco-2 cells | OTA: 5–45 μM | 3, 12, 24 h | RT-PCR | Decrease in the mRNA expression of COX-2 and 5-LOX | [105] |
| Broiler chickens (n = 80) | OTA: 50 μg/kg b.w. Oral administration |
21 days | RT-PCR | Increase in the transcript level of TNF-α and IL-1β in small intestine | [107] |
| Duck (White Pekin ducklings, n = 540) | OTA: 2 mg/kg Contaminated feed |
21 days | ELISA | Increase in the protein level of TNF-α and IL-1β in jejunum | [150] |
| Deoxynivalenol | |||||
| IPEC-J2 cells | DON: 4 μM | 24 h | RT-PCR | Increase in the mRNA expression of TNF-α and IL-8 | [106] |
| IPEC-J2 cells | DON: 0.5–2.0 μg/mL | 4, 8, 12 h | RT-PCR | Increase in the mRNA expression IL-1β, IL-6, COX-2, and TNF-α | [151] |
| IPEC-J2 cells | DON: 4 μM | 12 h | Luminex multiplex assay | Increase in IL-6 and IL-8 protein level | [152] |
| Intestine 407 cells | DON: 25–1000 ng/mL | 12 h | Luciferase assay, RT-PCR |
Increase in IL-8 secretion and mRNA expression | [153] |
| IPEC-1 cells | DON: 1000 ng/mL | 1 h | RT-PCR | Increase in IL-8 and MCP-1 mRNA expression | [154] |
| Pig (gilt, n = 72) | DON: 12 μg/kg b.w. Contaminated feed |
7-42 days | Histological analysis | Increase in the lymphocytes number in intestine | [142] |
| Pig (growing pigs, n = 24) | DON: 3, 6, 12 mg/kg feed Contaminated feed |
21 days | Histological analysis | Increase in the lymphocytes number in intestine | [141] |
| Fish (juvenile grass carp, n = 1440) | DON: 318–1515 μg/kg diet Contaminated feed |
60 days | RT-PCR | Increase in the transcript level of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-12p35, IL-12p40, IL-15, IL-17D, TNF-α and IFN-γ) in intestine Decrease in the mRNA expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10, IL-11, IL-4/13A, IL-4/13B and TGF-β1) in intestine |
[138] |
| Pig (piglet, n = 24) | DON: 3.0 mg/kg Contaminated feed |
35 days | RT-PCR | Increase the mRNA expression of IL-1β, IL-2, IL-6, IL-12p40, and MIP-1β in jejunum Increase the mRNA expression of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α in ileum |
[121] |
| Pig (piglet, n = 16) | DON: 3.5 mg/kg Contaminated feed |
42 days | RT-PCR | Increase the mRNA expression of IL-4 and CXCL10 in jejunum Increase the transcript level of IFN-γ, IL-6, IL-8 and CXCL10 in ileum |
[155] |
| Zearalenone | |||||
| IPEC-1 cells | ZEN: 25 μM | 1 h | RT-PCR | No effect on the transcript level IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-17, and TNF-α Decrease in transcript level of IL-4 and IFN-γ |
[156] |
| IPEC-1 cells | ZEN: 10–100 μM α-ZOL: 10–100 μM β-ZOL: 10–100 μM |
24 h | ELISA | ZEN: a tendency to increase the secretion of IL-8 and IL-10 α-ZOL: decrease the secretion of IL-8 and IL-10 β-ZOL: decrease the secretion of IL-8 and IL-10 |
[118] |
| IPEC-1 cells | ZEN: 10 μM | 24 h | RT-PCR | A tendency to increase the transcript level of IL-10, IL-18, CCL20 and MCP-1 | [91] |
| IPEC-J2 cells | ZEN: 6, 8 μg/mL | 24 h | RT-PCR | Increase in the transcript level of pro-IL-1β and pro-IL-18 | [157] |
| Rat (Sprague-Dawley, n = 96) | ZEN: 1.3–146.0 mg/kg Contaminated feed |
7 days | RT-PCR | Decrease in the mRNA expression of TNF-α and IL-1β in pregnant dams | [119] |
| Fumonisin B1 | |||||
| HT-29 cells | FB1: 1.1–69.0 μM | 48 h | Immunoenzymatic bioassay | No changes on IL-8 secretion | [93] |
| IPEC-1 cells | FB1: 2.6–100 μM | 4 days | RT-PCR, ELISA |
Decrease in the mRNA and protein expression of IL-8 | [158] |
| Pig (piglet, n = 24) | FB1: 6 mg/kg Contaminated feed |
35 days | RT-PCR | Increase the transcript level of IL-10 and IFN-γ in jejunum Increase the mRNA expression of TNF-α and IL-1β in ileum |
[121] |
| Pig (n = 17) | FB1: 0.5 mg/kg b.w./d Gavage |
7 days | RT-PCR | Decrease in the mRNA expression of IL-8 in the ileum | [158] |
| Citrinin | |||||
| Mice (BALB/c, n = 20) | CTN: 1, 5, and 10 mg/kg b.w. Gavage |
14 days | Staining of immune cells for flow cytometric analysis | Increase CD8+ cells in intra-epithelial, Decrease CD19+ cells in intra-epithelial |
[159] |