Table 7.
Modulation of the intestinal microbial barrier induced by mycotoxins.
| Model | Dose/Administration Route | Exposure Time | Technique | Damage | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aflatoxin | |||||
| Broiler chicks (Ross 308, n = 336) | AFs (AFB1+AFB2+AFG1+AFG2) 0.5 and 2 mg/kg feed Contaminated feed |
28, 42 days | Bacteriological examinations | Increase in the total negative bacteria, including Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Klebsiella in ileum | [104] |
| Broiler chicks (Ross 308, n = 336) | AFs (AFB1+AFB2+AFG1+AFG2) 0.5 and 2 ppm feed Contaminated feed |
28, 42 days | Bacterial examinations | Increase in the total negative bacteria, including Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Klebsiella in ileum | [132] |
| Broiler (Cobb, n = 576) | AFB1: 40 μg/kg Contaminated feed |
21 days | Bacterial examinations | No effect in the ileal bacteria populations, including Lactobacilli, Bifidobacteria, C. perfringens, Escherichia coli | [102] |
| Shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei, n = 100) | AFB1: 5 ppm Contaminated feed |
30 days | 16S rRNA gene sequencing | Decrease in the types of intestinal microbiota Increase in the relative abundance of Proteobacteria and Firmicutes Decrease in the relative abundance of Bacteroidetes |
[128] |
| Rat (Fischer 344, n = 20) | AFB1: 5, 25, 75 μg/kg b.w. Gavage |
28 days | 16S rRNA gene sequencing | Decrease in the fecal microbial diversity but increase evenness of community composition Decrease in the lactic acid bacteria number |
[163] |
| Mice (Kunming, n = 24) | AFB1: 2.5, 4, 10 mg/L Gavage |
60 days | 16S rRNA gene sequencing | Decrease in the intestinal microbial diversity | [164] |
| Broiler Chickens (Cobb-Vantress, n = 480) | AFB1: 1, 1.5, 2 ppm Contaminated feed |
21 days | Bacti flat bottom plate assay | Increase in the number of total gram-negative bacteria, total aerobic bacteria number, and total lactic acid bacteria in cecum | [165] |
| Ochratoxin A | |||||
| Caco-2 cells | OTA: 1–100 μM | 12 h | Bacterial translocation assay | Increase in Escherichia coli translocation across monolayer | [166] |
| human intestinal microbial ecosystem | OTA: 2.5 μM | 14 days | PCR-TTGE and PCR-DGGE | Alter gut microbiota diversity and cause the loss of beneficial species Lactobacillus reuteri | [167] |
| Rat (F344, n = 18) | OTA: 70, 210 μg/kg b.w. Gavage |
28 days | 16S rRNA sequencing, shotgun sequencing |
Decrease in the diversity of the gut microbiota Increase in the relative abundance of Lactobacillus |
[168] |
| Deoxynivalenol | |||||
| IPEC-J2 cells | DON: 4 μM | 12 h | Bacterial translocation assay | Increase in Escherichia coli translocation across monolayer | [152] |
| IPEC-1 cells | DON: 5–50 μM | 48 h | Bacterial translocation assay | Increase in Escherichia coli translocation across monolayer | [169] |
| Caco-2 cells | DON: 1-100 μM | 12 h | Bacterial translocation assay | Increase in Escherichia coli translocation across monolayer | [166] |
| Mice (BALB/c, n = 42) | DON: 3.0 mg/kg Gavage |
15 days | 16S rRNA gene sequencing | Increase in the abundance of Clostridiales, Lachnospiraceae and Blautia | [140] |
| Mice (CD-1, n = 36) | DON: 1.0, 5.0 mg/kg Gavage |
14 days | shotgun sequencing | Increase in the abundance of Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes in cecum | [170] |
| Broiler chickens (ROSS 308, n = 80) | DON: 2.5, 5 and 10 mg/kg diet Contaminated feed |
35 days | 16S rRNA gene sequencing | Increase in the abundance of Firmicutes in cecum Decrease in the abundance of Proteobacteria in cecum |
[171] |
| Pig (piglet, n = 24) | DON: 2.5 mg/kg Contaminated feed |
28 days | Capillary electrophoresis single-stranded conformation polymorphism | Increase in fecal aerobic mesophilic bacteria number | [172] |
| Rat (Wistar, n = 18) | DON: 60, 120 μg/kg b.w. Gavage |
40 days | 16S rRNA gene sequencing | Increase in the relative abundance of Coprococcus genus | [173] |
| Rat (Sprague-Dawley, n = 20) | DON: 100 μg/kg b.w. Gavage |
28 days | RT-PCR | Increase in the concentration of Bacteroides and Prevotella genera Decrease in the expression Escherichia coli |
[174] |
| Rat (Wistar, N = 80) | DON: 2, 10 mg/kg Contaminated feed |
28 days | 16S rRNA gene sequencing | No effect on the composition of the gut microbiota | [175] |
| Zearalenone | |||||
| Mice (BALB/c, n = 40) | ZEN: 10 mg/kg b.w. Gavage |
14 days | 16S rRNA gene sequencing | Decrease in the abundance of Firmicutes Decrease in the abundance of Bacteroidetes |
[176] |
| Pig (gilt, n = 75) | ZEN: 40 μg/kg b.w. Oral administration |
42 days | EcoPlate tests | Decrease in mesophilic aerobic bacteria number Decrease in the level of Enterobacteriaceae family |
[177] |
| Fumonisin B1 | |||||
| Pig (piglet, n = 24) | FBs (FB1+FB2): 11.8 ppm Contaminated feed |
63 days | Capillary single-stranded conformation polymorphism analysis | Alter the digestive microbiota balance | [178] |
| Patulin | |||||
| Caco-2 cells | PAT: 1–100 μM | 12 h | Bacterial translocation assay | Increase in Escherichia coli translocation across monolayer | [166] |