Table 2.

The relevant targets by which phage therapy may be applicable for treatment of COVID-19.

1. Phages can interact with epithelial cells and protect those cells from virus-induced damage and apoptosis; this could be especially relevant for lung epithelial cells.

2. Phages may prevent viral adsorption to epithelial cells and downregulate viral replication in those cells.

3. Phages may induce production of cellular chaperones protecting cells from viral injury (e.g., induction of Hsp70 in human alveolar cells).

4. Phages inhibit inflammation (downregulation of Nuclear Factor (NF) kappa B and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production).

5. Phages induce anti-viral immunity (e.g., induction of interferon (IFN)-alpha and IFN-gamma, defensin 2 and inhibition of Hsp90).

6. Phages may interfere with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV)-b2 binding to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2).