Fig. 5.

Distribution of the forces and torques sent to the haptic device during the simulated palpation task using the tuned parameters. The blue histograms visualize the computed forces along the longitudinal axis of the pedicle probe handle and the twisting torques. The orange histograms visualize the computed forces in a plane perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the pedicle probe handle and the bending torques. The histograms for each surgeon comprise the data of 4 trials. For comparison, the measured force and torque distributions during the palpations of the boar vertebra with the instrumented pedicle probe are shown with solid lines