Table 2.

Lesion locations associated with specific signs of dysphagia

Deficit/sequela	Brain region
Prolonged oral bolus transit time	L inferior frontal lobe [50] L precentral gyrus [50]
Prolonged pharyngeal bolus transit time	Insula [51] R basal ganglia [50] R corona radiata [50] Corticobulbar tract white matter [44]
Delayed onset of pharyngeal swallow trigger	R middle temporal gyrus [52] R superior temporal gyrus [52] R temporal pole [52] R lateral occipital cortex [52] R angular gyrus [52] R supramarginal gyrus [52] R planum temporale [52] R caudate [52] R superior longitudinal fasciculus [52] R parietal operculum cortex [52] Corticobulbar tract white matter [44]
Reduced laryngeal elevation	R precentral gyrus [53] R anterior & posterior insula [53] R external capsule [53] R superior corona radiata [53] R superior longitudinal fasciculus [53] Corticobulbar tract white matter [44]
Reduced anterior hyoid excursion	L amygdala [53] L ansa lenticularis [53] L lenticular fasciculus [53]
Reduced laryngeal vestibule closure	L postcentral gyrus [53] L supramarginal gyrus [53] R anterior & posterior insula R superior corona radiata [53] R external capsule [53]
Pharyngeal residue	R postcentral gyrus [53] R supramarginal gyrus [52, 53] R angular gyrus [52, 53] R superior & posterior corona radiata [53] R tapetum [53] R internal capsule [53] R superior longitudinal fasciculus [53] R posterior superior temporal gyrus [52, 53] R middle temporal gyrus [52] R planum temporale [52] R frontal orbital cortex [52] R parietal operculum [52]
Penetration/aspiration	R precentral gyrus [53] R postcentral gyrus [53] R superior longitudinal fasciculus [53] R supramarginal gyrus [40, 53] R superior temporal gyrus [40] R planum temporale [40] Corticobulbar tract white matter [44]
Impaired cough response	R paracingulate gyrus [52] R accumbens [52] R cingulum [52] R amygdala [52] R pallidum [52] R superior longitudinal fasciculus [52] R inferior frontal gyrus [52] L middle temporal gyrus [52] L postcentral gyrus [52] L supramarginal gyrus [52]
Impaired oral intake	Insula [36] Rolandic operculum [36] Superior corona radiata [36] Putamen [36] External capsule [36] Superior longitudinal fasciculus [36]
Tube feeding dependence	Insula [36] Rolandic operculum [36]
Pneumonia	R precentral gyrus [52] R postcentral gyrus [52] R paracingulate gyrus [52] R anterior cingulate gyrus [52] R supplementary motor cortex [52] R superior frontal gyrus [52] R middle frontal gyrus [52] R inferior frontal gyrus [52] R cingulum [52] R amygdala [52] R & L thalamus [52] L anterior thalamic radiation [52]

R, right; L, left; if there is no demarcation of R or L, there was no significant association of hemisphere