Table 2.

Nested Fixed-effects Panel Models of County Prescribing Rates

	Model 1	Model 2	Model 3
Pain Management Clinic	−5.68*	−6.06*	−5.78*
	(2.63)	(2.50)	(2.40)
Year
2007	4.09***	4.64***	4.60***
	(.43)	(.66)	(.63)
2008	7.15***	8.39***	8.31***
	(.68)	(1.24)	(1.19)
2009	9.20***	11.33***	11.33***
	(.79)	(1.63)	(1.62)
2010	12.01***	14.90***	14.88***
	(.88)	(1.77)	(1.71)
2011	12.04***	15.92***	15.85***
	(.93)	(2.05)	(2.07)
2012	15.94***	19.85***	19.68***
	(.95)	(1.82)	(1.90)
2013	13.85***	18.06***	17.91***
	(.95)	(1.87)	(1.93)
2014	11.22***	15.19***	15.41***
	(1.21)	(2.44)	(2.44)
2015	5.32***	10.70**	11.61***
	(1.22)	(2.94)	(2.98)
2016	1.93	8.17*	9.87**
	(1.22)	(3.12)	(3.09)
Unemployment rate		.69*	.72*
		(.33)	(.33)
Median household income (Thousands)		−.21	−.23
		(.13)	(.13)
Percent living in Poverty		.21	.21
		(.15)	(.15)
Percent with Bachelor’s degree		−.11	−.11
		(.08)	(.08)
Percent foreign-born		.22	.21
		(.41)	(.42)
Percent female-headed households		−.70**	−.71**
		(.23)	(.23)
Percent Black		−.61	−.64
		(.43)	(.43)
Percent Hispanic		−.74*	−.73*
		(.34)	(.33)
Percent Hispanic*Percent Foreign Born		−.01	−.01
		(.01)	(.01)
State education expenditures		−1.43	−1.75
		(2.91)	(2.92)
State public welfare expenditures		−6.12	−6.19
		(3.71)	(3.65)
State hospital expenditures		8.45	8.26
		(8.20)	(8.10)
State health expenditures		8.01	7.55
		(6.59)	(6.52)
PDMP system			.82
			(1.55)
Naloxone access law			−1.92
			(1.28)
Good Samaritan law			−1.11
			(1.28)
Medical marijuana law			1.86
			(1.33)
Constant	79.67***	107.14***	108.08***
	(.68)	(10.19)	(10.09)
Observations	30,798	30,798	30,798

Note: Models include state-level cluster corrected standard errors.