Figure 1.

Graphical summary of the major clinical and pre-clinical findings covered in this review demonstrating dysregulated expression of neuropeptides and their receptors in the prefrontal cortex (PFC; blue indicates downregulation and red indicates upregulation). Clinical evidence from PFC of human post-mortem tissue indicates downregulation of somatostatin (SST) and neuropeptide Y (NPY) in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, SST in major depressive disorder (MDD), and corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and dynorphin (DYN) in alcohol use disorder. Pre-clinical evidence from the PFC of rodent models relevant to neuropsychiatric disorders indicates that; NPY is downregulated with substance use, SST, and delta-opioid receptors (DOR) are downregulated following stress. NPY is upregulated during recovery from stress, and CRF receptor 1 (CRF-R1), kappa opioid receptors (KOR), enkephalin (ENK) and, mu-opioid receptors (MOR) are upregulated following stress. CRF is downregulated following acute stress and is increased following chronic stress.