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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2022 Apr 25.
Published in final edited form as: Nat Rev Mater. 2021 Nov 10;7:235–249. doi: 10.1038/s41578-021-00389-7

Fig. 2. Working principles of untethered and biohybrid soft actuators.

Fig. 2

a-e | Actuation mechanisms triggered by magnetic fields (panel a), light (panel b), acoustic waves (panel c), temperature increase (panel d, red colour indicates increased temperature) and other environmental stimuli (panel e). f | Biohybrid devices can be designed on the basis of skeletal or cardiac muscle tissues and living microorganisms, such as Escherichia coli. CTE, coefficient of thermal expansion.