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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2023 Feb 20.
Published in final edited form as: Am J Psychiatry. 2023 Jan 11;180(2):117–126. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.20220174

Figure 2. Meta-analytic associations between child maltreatment and mental health problems across different quasi-experimental methods.

Figure 2

Note. k=number of studies (i.e., papers); n=number of participants across studies; ES=number of effect sizes. “MZ twin difference” refers to twin difference designs including only monozygotic twins, while “twin difference” refers to twin difference designs that include both monozygotic and dizygotic twins. Quasi-experimental methods used by only a single study in the meta-analysis (namely the adoption design (43), Children of Twins design (42), and random-intercept cross-lagged panel model (55)) were not included in the moderator analysis.