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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2023 Jun 14.
Published in final edited form as: IEEE Trans Instrum Meas. 2023;72:1–12. doi: 10.1109/TIM.2023.3239925

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

Force/torque measurement mechanism: (a) structure diagram; (b) force analysis diagram; (c) sensing unit; (d) the relationship between the measured displacement and output of the photo reflector; (e) directional deformation (along the force direction) of the sensing unit with force applied; (f) the relationship between the applied force and directional deformation of the sensing unit; (g) safety factor for the sensing unit with force applied; (h) minimum and average safety factors when various forces applied.