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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2024 Dec 1.
Published in final edited form as: Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2024 Jun 30;38(4):101967. doi: 10.1016/j.berh.2024.101967

Figure 2. Instrumental variable assumptions required for causal inference in Mendelian randomization.

Figure 2

(i) the genetic instrument (Z) is strongly associated with the exposure (X); (ii) no confounders of the instrument (Z) and the outcome (Y); (iii) no causal pathway from the instrument (Z) to the outcome (Y) other than through the exposure (X).