|
Australia
|
Grech, 2022 |
Unadjusted means, SE and p value |
Age: 19–30 years: 43.9% (SE:0.8); 31–50 years 38.0 (0.4); 51–70 years: 34.5 (0.5); 71+ years: 36.5 (0.7) (p-trend < 0.0001) |
Gender: Female: 37.5% (SE:0.4); Male: 38.8 (0.5) (p-trend = 0.047) |
SEIFA: Lowest (quintile 1): 40.1% (SE:0.8); Middle (quintile 2–3): 38.4 (0.4); Highest (quintile 5): 35.9 (0.7) (p-trend = 0.0013) |
Education: No tertiary education: 40.1% (SE:0.8); Vocational education: 38.4 (0.4); University education: 35.9 (0.7) (p-trend = 0.0013) |
Country of birth: Australian-born: 40.3% (SE:0.4); Other English-speaking countries:37.6 (0.8); Other: 31.0 (0.7) (p-trend < 0.0001) |
Rural/urbanisation: Major cities: 37.3% (SE:0.3); Inner regional: 40.7 (0.7); Other: 39.3 (1.1) (p-trend < 0.0001) |
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|
| Machado, 2020 |
Unadjusted p-value across quintiles of UPF intake |
Age (20–39 years, 40–59 years, ≥60 years) p < 0.001 |
Gender (Male, Female) p = 0.493 |
Years of education (≤9 years, 10–12 years, 10–12 years with graduate degree) p < 0.001 |
SEIFA (Quintile 1,2,3,4 and 5) p < 0.001 |
Rural/urbanisation (Major cities, Inner regional, Other) p = 0.002 |
Country of birth (Australia or English country, Other) p < 0.001 |
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|
| Machado, 2019 |
Unadjusted mean, 95%CI and p value |
Young children (2–5 years): 47.3% [95%CI: 45.4, 49.2] ; Older children (6–11 years): 53.1% [95%CI: 51.6, 54.7]; Adolescents (12–19 years): 54.3 [95%CI: 52.6, 55.9]; Adults (20–64 years): 39.4% [95%CI: 38.7, 40.1]; Elderly (≥ 65 years): 36.3% [95%CI: 35.3, 37.4] p < 0.001 |
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|
| Marchese, 2021 |
Adjusted beta, 95%CI and p value |
Gender: (Male = reference) Female: -0.8% [95%CI: -2.2, 0.5], p = 0.308 |
Age (19-30 = reference): 31–50:–4.6% [-6.4, -2.9]; 51-70: -8.3% [-10.3, -6.4]; 71+: -5.5% [-8.0, -2.9] p <0.00l. |
Country of birth (Australia = reference): Main English-speaking country: -1.2% [-2.9, 0.4]; Other: -8.1% [-9.8, -6.3] p <0.001 |
Area-level disadvantage (First quintile (greater disadvantage) = reference): Second quintile: -1.0% [-2.8, 0.8]; Third quintile: -0.1% [-1.9,1.7]; Fourth quintile: -0.7% [-2.9, 1.4]; Fifth quintile:-2.4% [-4.6, -0.1] p = 0.048 |
Education (Low = reference): Medium: -0.8% [-2.5, 0.8], High: -2.3% [-4.5, -0.2] p = 0.005 |
Household income (First quintile (20 % lowest income) = reference): Second quintile: 3.4% [1.7, 5.1]; Third quintile: l.9% [0.2, 3.5]; Fourth quintile: 2.2% [0.3, 4.2]; Fifth quintile (20 % highest income): -1.2 [-3.1, 0.7] p = 0.011 |
Rural/urbani sation (Major city of Australia = reference) Inner regional Australia: 0.6% [-0.8, 2.1]; Other: 0.3% [-1.8, 2.3] p= 0.904 |
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Barbados
|
Harris, 2022 |
Unadjusted mean kcal/d (95 % CI) standardised energy intake to 2000 kcal/d, 95%CI and p value |
Age: 25–44: 889.1 kcal/d [95%CI: 835.8, 942.3]; 45–64: 737.1 [692.8, 781.3] p < 0.05 |
Gender: Males: 802.4 kcal/d [750.8, 854.1]; Females: 811.3 [763.4, 859.2] p > 0.05 |
Education: <Tertiary: 818.5 kcal/d (778.4, 858.5); Tertiary: 768.3 kcal/d [696.0, 840.7] p > 0.05 |
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Belgium
|
Vandevijver e, 2018 |
Unadjusted mean and 95%CI and adjusted beta, SE and p value |
Unadjusted Gender (2004, 15-64 year-olds) Females: 28.9% [95%CI: 27.1, 30.2]; Males: 32.3% [30.9, 34.3]; (2014-15) Females: 29.7% [95%CI: 28.7, 31.2]; Males: 29.9% [28.6, 31.2] |
Adjusted age (2014-15) (3–5 = reference): 6-9:-6.98% (SE:1.83), p = 0.0001; 10-13: -6.58% (SE:1.79), p = 0.0002; 14-17: - 6.23 (SE:1.80), p = 0.0006; 18-34: - 7.27 (SE:2.10), p = 0.0006; 35-50: - 8.56 (SE:2.11), p < 0.0001; 51-64: 0.47 (SE:2.10), p = 0.8241 |
Unadjusted Education level (2014-15): Secondary education or lower: 30.5% [95%CI: 28.6, 31.5]; Higher education, short type: 29.9% [95%CI: 28.0, 31.4] Higher education, long type: 30.5% [95%CI:28.9, 31.9] |
Adjusted Region (2014-15) (Flanders = reference) Brussels capital region: 6.13% (SE: 1.17) p < 0.0001; Walloon region: 8.09% (SE: 0.78) p < 0.0001 |
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| Vandevijver e, 2020 |
Unadjusted mean and 95%CI |
Unadjusted Gender Females: 29.7% [95%CI: 28.7, 31.2]; Males: 29.9% [95%CI: 28.6, 31.2] |
Unadjusted Age: 3–9 years: 33.3% [95%CI: 32.1, 35.0]; 10–17 years: 29.2% [95%CI: 27.7, 30.3]; 18–64 years: 29.6% [28.5, 30.7] |
Unadjusted Education level: Low: 30.5% [95%CI: 28.6, 31.5]; Medium: 29.9% [95%CI: 28.0, 31.4]; High: 30.5% [95%CI: 28.9, 31.9] |
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Brazil
|
Verly-Jr, 2021 |
Unadjusted mean and 95%CI |
Unadjusted Income: <0.5MW: 16.7% [95%CI: 16.1, 17.3]; 0.5-1 MW: 22.4% [95%CI: 21.9, 22.9]; 1.5-3MW: 27.3% [95%CI: 26.6%, 28.1%]; >3MW: 31.8 [95%CI: 30.9, 32.8] |
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|
| Louzada, 2017 |
Unadjusted mean and 95%CI |
Household income per capita: Tertile 1 (R$ 149.4–567.2 per capita): 15.7%; Tertile 2 (R$ 567.3–843.5 per capita): 22.4%; Tertile 3 (R$ 843.5–6445.4 per capita): 28.5% p <0.001 |
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|
| Louzada, 2015 |
Unadjusted p-value across quintiles of UPF intake |
Age (10-19, 20-39, 40-59, 60+) p < 0.001 |
Gender (Male, Female) p < 0.001 |
Race/ethnicity (White, African-descendent, Other) p < 0.001 |
Rural/urbanisation (Rural, Urban) p < 0.001 |
Years of education (≤ 4, 5-8, 9-12, >12) p < 0.001 |
Annual household income per person (USD) (≤2200, 2201-4400, >4400) < 0.001 |
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|
| Canella, 2018 |
Unadjusted mean intakes %kcal/day, 95%Cis |
Age: 10–19: 26.8% [95%CI: 26.1– 27.6]; 20–39: 21.3% [20.8, 21.9]; 40–59: 17.2% [16.6, 17.8]; 60+: 15.0% [14.2, 15.8] |
Gender: Male: 19.2% [95%CI: 18.7, 19.7]; Female: 21.8% [21.3, 22.2] |
Region: North: 14.8% [95%CI: 14.3, 15.4]; Northeast: 14.9% [14.5, 15.3]; Southeast: 23.6% [23.0, 24.2]; South: 25.7% [25.0,26.4]; Midwest: 19.4% [18.4, 20.3] |
Rural/urbanisation: Rural: 12.7% [12.3, 13.2]; Male: 22.1% [21.7, 22.5] |
Household income per capita: 1st tercile: 15.1% [95%CI: 14.6, 15.5]; 2nd tercile: 20.2% [19.7, 20.8]; 3rd tercile: 26.3% [25.7, 26.9] |
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| Nilson, 2022 |
Unadjusted mean intakes %kcal/day, 95%Cis |
Age (stratified by gender Male (M); Female (F)): 15-19: M: 25.1% [95%CI: 23.3, 26.9]; F: 26.2% [24.5, 28.0]; 20-24: M: 22.8% [20.8, 24.9]; F: 25.0% [23.5, 26.5]; 25-29: M: 22.3% [20.8, 23.9]; F: 22.0% [20.7, 23.3]; 30-34: M: 18.4% [17.2, 19.6]; F: 21.0% [19.3, 22.7]; 35–39: 18.6% [16.7, 20.4]; F: 19.0% [17.9, 20.1]; 40–44: M: 15.5% [14.4, 16.6]; F: 18.5% [17.3, 19.7]; 45-49: M: 18.1% [16.4, 19.6]; F: 18.4% [17.0, 19.8]; 50-54: M: 15.4% [14.3, 16.6]; F: 17.4% [15.9, 18.8]; 55-59: M: 14.6% [13.6, 15.7]; F: 16.2% [15.2, 17.3]; 60-64: M: 13.0% [11.9, 14.1]; F: 16.3% [15.2, 17.4]; 65-69: M: 14.2% [13.0, 15.5]; F: 16.0% [14.5, 17.5]; 70-74: M: 14.4% [12.6, 16.2]; F: 16.2% [14,7, 17.7]; 75-79: M: 13.1% [11.4, 14.8]; F: 15.1% [13.4, 16.7]; 80+: M: 12.7% [10.5, 15.0]; F: 17.9% [13.7, 22.1] |
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|
Canada
|
Moubarac, 2016 |
Unadjusted mean and p value |
Gender: Female: 46.5%; Male: 48.6% p < 0.001 |
Age: 2-18: 55.1%; 19-30: 51%; 31-50: 44.9%; 51-64: 42.2%; 65+: 42.6 p < 0.001 |
Education level: Less than high school diploma: 51.7%; High school diploma: 47.6%; Postsecondary studies: 49%; Post-secondary studies diploma: 44.1% p < 0.001 |
Family income: Low: 47.1%; Low-medium: 47.6%; Medium-high: 47.9%; High: 47.7%, p < 0.05 |
Rural/urbanisation: Rural: 50%; Urban: 47.2% p < 0.001 |
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| Nardocci, 2018 |
Adjusted standardised beta and p value |
Gender: (Male = reference) Female: -0.04, p = 0.005 |
Age (continuous): - 0.14, p < 0.001 |
Education (< Postsecondary graduation = reference): Postsecondary graduation: -0.06, p < 0.001 |
Income (Lowest = reference) Lowermiddle: 0.02, p = 0.277; Upper-middle: 0.02, p = 0.346; Highest: -0.01, p = 0.850; Not stated: 0.02, p = 0.318 |
Immigration status (Nonimmigrant = reference): Immigrant: -0.22, p < 0.001 |
Rural/urbanisation (Rural = reference): Urban: -0.01, p = 0.213 |
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|
| Polsky, 2020 |
Unadjusted mean, 95%CI and p value |
Age and gender 2004: 2-5: 51.0% {95%CI: 49.8, 52.3]; 6-12: 55.8% [55.0, 56.6]; Adolescent females 13-18: 57.2% [56.1, 58.3]; Adolescent males 13-18: 57.4% [56.2, 58.5]; Adult females 19-54: 44.8% [43.8, 45.8]; Adult males 19-54: 48.2% [47.0, 49.4]; Older females 55+: 41.7% [40.6, 42.8]; Older males 55+: 42.5% [41.5, 43.6] 2015: 2-5: 48.0% [46.1, 49.9]; 6-12: 53.0% [51.9, 54.2]; Adolescent females 13-18: 50.4% [48.5, 52.4]; Adolescent males 13-18: 53.2% [51.5, 54.9]; Adult females 19-54: 41.6% [40.2, 43.0]; Adult males 19-54: 45.4% [43.8, 47.0]; Older females 55+: 45.2% [44.0, 46.4]; Older males 55+: 45.3% [43.9, 46.7] |
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|
|
| Hutchinson, 2021 |
Adjusted mean SE and p value |
Food security across age-sex groups (Food secure, Marginally food insecure, Moderately food insecure, Severely food insecure: 1-8-years: p-trend = 0.002; 9-18- years: p-trend = 0.049; Women 19-64-years: p-trend = 0.003; Men 19-64-years: p-trend = 0.009 |
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|
| Nardocci, 2020 |
Unadjusted p-value across tertiles of UPF intake |
Age(19-30, 31-50, 51-64, 65+): p = 0.0004 |
Gender (Male, Female) p = 0.0006 |
Income (quintiles) p = 0.0143 |
Education level (< High school, High school, Trade/college/CEGEP, University diploma) p < 0.0001 |
Rural/urbanisation (Rural, Urban) p < 0.0001 |
Immigrant (Immigrant, Canadian-born) p < 0.0001 |
Indigenous identity (Indigenous, non- Indigenous) p = 0.0009 |
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|
Chile
|
Cediel, 2017 |
Adjusted mean, 95%CI and p value |
Gender: Female: 29.4% [95%CI: 28.1, 30.6]; Male: 27.8% [26.5, 29.2], p > 0.05 |
Age: 2-19: 38.6% [95%CI: 36.7, 40.6], 20-49: 26.7% [25.2, 28.2]; 50-64: 21.8% [19.7, 24.0], >=65: 18.3% [16.8, 19.8] p-trend <= 0.001 |
Rural/urbanisation: Rural: 23.7% [95%CI: 21.9, 25.5]; Urban: 29.3% [28.3, 30.4] p < 0.05 |
Region of country North: 27.5% [95%CI: 24.4, 30.6] (c); Centre: 28.5% [26.8, 30.3] (c); South: 26.7% [24.8, 28.6] (c,d); South (Austral): 27.3% [24.2, 30.4] (c); Metropolitan: 30.2% [28.6, 31.8] (e) unlike letters (c-e) p < 0.05 |
Family income: 1x MW: 25.8% [95%CI: 24.0, 27.6]; 2xMW: 28.7% [27.2, 30.3]; 3-5x MW: 30.0% [27.8, 32.2]; >= 6x MW: 30.1% [28.3, 31.9] p-trend <= 0.001 |
Head of family years of school: <=8 years: 28.7% [95%CI: 27.3, 30.1]; 9-11 years: 27.4% [25.7, 29.1]; >=12 years: 29.8% [28.0, 31.6] |
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Colombia
|
Khandpur, 2020 |
Adjusted mean intake, SE, beta and p value |
Gender Female: 16.2% (SE:0.2); Male: 15.5 (0.2); (Female = reference) Male beta: -0.6, p = 0.007 |
Age: 2-9: 19.3% (SE:0.3); 10-19: 19.3% (0.2); 20-34: 15.4% (0.3); 35-49: 12.2% (0.3); >=50: 11.4% (0.4); (2-9 = reference): 10-19 beta: -0.1, p = 0.718; 20-34 beta: - 3.9, p < 0.001; 35-49 beta: -7.1, p < 0.001; >=50: -7.9, p < 0.001 |
Socioeconomic status: Level 1 (low): 12.7% (SE: 0.3); Level 2: 15.8% (0.3); Level 3: 17.9% (0.3); Level 4 (high): 22.8% (1.0); (Level 1 (low) = reference): Level 2 beta: 3.1, p < 0.001; Level 3 beta: 5.2, p < 0.001; Level 4 (high) beta: 10.1, p < 0.001 |
Rural/urbanisation: Urban: 17.3% (SE: 0.2); Central: 12.6% (0.5); Rural: 11.2% (0.6); (Urban = reference): Central beta: -4.6, p < 0.001 Rural beta: -6.1, p < 0.001 |
Region: Atlantic: 12.7% (SE:0.3); Eastern: 18.1% (0.4); Central: 14.4% (0.4); Pacific: 14.9% (0.4); Bogotá: 21.6% (0.5); Orinoquía and Amazon: 15.7% (0.6); (Atlantic = reference): Eastern beta: 5.4, p < 0.001; Central beta: 1.7, p = 0.001; Pacific beta: 2.2, p < 0.001; Bogotá beta: 8.9, p < 0.001; Orinoquía and Amazon beta: 3.0, p < 0.001 |
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France
|
Calixto Andrade, 2021 |
Adjusted mean intake and 95%CI |
Gender: Male: 31.4% [95%CI: 30.1, 32.7]; Female: 30.9% [30.0, 31.9] |
Age: 18-39: 39.1% [95%CI: 37.8, 40.5] 40-59: 28.1% [27.2, 29.0] 60+: 21.6% [20.4, 22.8] |
Rural/urbanisation: Rural: 28.9% [95%CI: 27.4, 30.4]; Urban: 31.9% [95%CI: 30.9, 32.8] |
Occupation: Management/interm ediate profession: 32.2% [95%CI: 30.9, 33.4]; Self- employed/farmers: 28.1% [25.1, 31.2]; Manual workers/employees: 32.7% [31.3, 34.2]; Retired: 22.3% [21.1, 23.5]; Homemakers, disabled persons, and others: 35.9% [34.1, 37.7] |
Education: Incomplete high school: 26.5% [95%CI: 24.9, 28.1]; Complete high school: 32.9% [31.8, 34.1]; Technical course: 32.2% [30.3, 34.0] University degree: 31.9% [30.4, 33.4] |
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|
| Salomé, 2021 |
Unadjusted p-value across tertiles of UPF intake |
Age (18-24, 25-34, 35-49, 50-65, 65-79) p < 0.001 |
Gender (Male, Female) p = 0.603 |
Education (Primary school, Middle school, Secondary school, College or university) p < 0.001 |
Occupation (Employee, Manual worker, Farmer, Craftsman, shopkeeper, business owner, Intermediate profession, Professional, executive, Retired, Inactive) p < 0.001 |
Region (Ile-de-France (Paris area), North-West, North-East, South-East, South-West) p = 0.238 |
City size (Rural, 2 000-19 999 individuals, 20 000-99 999 individuals, ≥100 000 individuals, Paris agglomeration) p < 0.001 |
Food insecurity (Food security, Moderate food insecurity, Severe food insecurity) p < 0.001 |
Marital status (Single, Married, Unmarried couple, Widowed, Separated/divorce d, Refusal to answer) p < 0.001 |
|
Italy
|
Ruggiero, 2021 |
Adjusted beta, 95%CI and p value |
Gender (Women = reference) Men beta: -1.28 [95%CI: -1.89, - 0.68] p < 0.0001 |
Age (20-40 = reference) 41-65 beta: -1.15 [95%CI: -2.14, -0.15] p < 0.0001, >65 beta: - 3.10 [-4.40, -1.80] p = 0.024 |
Geographical area (Northern Italy = reference) Central Italy beta: -0.23 [95%CI: -0.99, 0.53] p = 0.56; Southern Italy = 0.014 |
Rural/urbanisation (Rural = reference) Urban beta: 1.64 [95%CI: 0.87, 2.42] p < 0.0001 |
Education (Upper Elementary = reference) Lower secondary beta: 0.70 [95%CI: -0.15, 1.55] p = 0.11; Upper secondary beta: 0.55 [-1.36, 0.74] p = 0.20; Postsecondary beta: 0.65 [-2.14, 0.44] p = 0.22 |
Occupation (Manual = reference) Non-manual beta: -0.02 [95%CI: - 0.85, 0.81] p = 0.96; Housewife beta: -0.79 [1.86, 0.29] p = 0.15; Retired beta: -1.87 [2.83, -0.91] p = 0.0001; Student beta: 0.69 [1.60, 2.98] = 0.55; Unemployed beta: -0.64 [-2.30, 1.01] p = 0.44 |
Marital status (Married/in couple = reference) Unmarried beta: 1.26 [95%CI: 0.37, 2.15] p = 0.0053; Separated/divorced beta: 1.88 [0.38, 3.38] p = 0.014; Widowed beta: 1.16 [0.07, 2.24] p = 0.037 |
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|
Korea
|
Shim, 2022 |
Adjusted mean intake, 95%CI and p value |
Gender: Female: 25.0% [95%CI: 24.4, 25.6]; Male: 25.8% [95%CI: 25.5, 26.1] p < 0.0001. Time trend across 2010-18 p-trend Males <0.0001; Females <0.0001 |
Age: 1–12: 30.7% [95%CI: 30.0, 31.3]; 13–19: 33.8% [32.9, 34.6]; 20–49: 26.6% [26.1, 27.0]; 50–64: 19.7% [19.3, 20.1]; ≥65: 16.3% [15.8, 16.7]; p linear trend < 0.001. Time trend across 2010-18 p- trend, 1-12 = 0.0002; 13-19 = 0.0001; 20-49 <0.0001; 50-64 <0.0001; ≥65 <0.0001 |
Residence: Urban: 25.8% [95%CI: 25.5, 26.1]; Rural: 25.0% [24.4, 25.6] p = 0.004. Time trend across 2010-18 p-trend, urban <0.0001; Rural <0.0001 |
Education: Middle school or less: 23.4% [95%CI: 23.0, 23.8]; High school: 26.4% [25.9, 26.9]; College or higher: 26.3% [25.8, 26.9]; p< 0.0001. Time trend across 2010-18 p-trend, Middle school or less <0.0001; High school <0.0001; College or higher: <0.0001 |
Household income: Low (Quartile 1): 25.5% [95%CI: 24.9, 26.1]; Middle (Quartile 2–3): 25.4% [25.0, 25.8]; High (Quartile 4): 25.3% [24.8, 25.7] p = 0.174. Time trend across 2010-18 p- trend, Low (Quartile 1) = 0.0361; Middle (Quartile 2– 3) <0.0001; High (Quartile 4) <0.0001 |
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|
|
| Sung, 2022 |
Adjusted mean intake, SE and p value |
Gender: Female: 26.19% (SE:0.38); Male: 27.55 (0.39) p = 0.0165 |
Age 19–29: 34.57% (SE:0.82); 30–49: 27.53% (0.42); 50– 64: 20.64% (0.41), p < 0.0001, p linear trend < 0.0001. (19-29 = reference) 30-49 p < 001; 50-64 p < 0.001. |
Household income: Lowest: 26.22% (SE:0.94); Lower middle: 27.58 (0.53); Upper middle: 26.64 (0.40); Highest: 26.80% (0.46), p = 0.4254, p linear trend = 0.8007 |
Education level: Middle school or lower: 24.98% (SE:0.66); High school: 27.59 % (0.43); College or higher: 26.81% (0.37), p = 0.0022, p linear trend = 0.2662. (Middle school or lower = reference) High school p < 0.01; College or higher p < 0.05. |
Rural/urbanisation: Urban: 27.01% (SE:0.29); Rural: 25.88% (0.66); p = 0.1138 |
Marital status: Single/Separated/Divorced: 27.73% (0.62); Married: 26.43% (0.37); p = 0.1169 |
Household status: One- person household: 27.57% (SE:0.29); Multiperson household: 26.81% (0.91) p = 0.4439 |
|
| |
Shim, 2021 |
Unadjusted mean, SE and p value |
Gender: Male: 27.1% (SE:0.3); Female 25.3% (0.3), p < 0.001 |
Age: 1-18: 31.5% (SE:0.4); 19-49: 29.9% (0.3); 50-64: 21.0% (0.3); 65+: 15.8% (0.3), p < 0.001 |
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|
| Shim, 2021 |
Unadjusted p-value across tertiles of UPF intake |
Age (continuous) p < 0.001 |
Gender (Male, Female) p < 0.001 |
Income (High (above median income), Median and below income)n p = 0.082 |
Rural/Urbanisation (Urban, Rural) = 0.001 |
Education (>12 years, <=12 years) p <0.001 |
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Mexico
|
Marrón-Ponce, 2019 |
Unadjusted p-value across quintiles of UPF intake |
Gender (Male, Female) p = 0.16 |
Age (1-4, 5-11, 12-19, 20-59, 60+) p < 0.001 |
Rural/Urbanisation (Rural, Urban) p < 0.001 |
Region (South, Central, North) p < 0.001 |
Socioeconomic status (Low, Medium, High) p < 0.001 |
Head of household educational level (No formal education, Elementary school, Middle school, High school, College) p < 0.001 |
|
|
| |
Marrón-Ponce, 2017 |
Adjusted beta and 95%CI |
Gender (Male = reference) Female beta: 0.5% [95%CI: -0.9, 1.9] |
Age (Pre-schoolaged children = reference) Schoolaged children beta: -3.8% [95%CI: -5.4, -2.2]; Adolescents beta: -3.0% [-4.9, - 1.1]; Adults beta: - 12.5% [-14.1, -10.9] |
Rural/Urbanisation (Rural = reference) Urban beta: 5.6% [95%CI: 4.2, 7.0] |
Region of Mexico (South = reference) Central beta: 2.7% [95%CI: 1.2, 4.1]; North beta: 8.4% [6.6, 10.1] |
Socioeconomic status (Low = reference) Medium = 4.5% [95%CI: 2.8, 6.2]; High = 4.5% [2.5, 6.5] |
Head of household education level (Without education = reference) Elementary education: 1.9% [95%CI: -0.5, 4.3]; Middle school education: 3.4% [0.8, 6.1]; High school education: 4.3% [1.1, 7.4]; College graduate education: 7.8% [4.3, 11.4] |
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| Oviedo-Solís, 2022 |
Unadjusted mean and 95%CI |
Age: (Dietary recall) Adults (<60): 21.4% [95%CI: 18.8, 24.0]; Older adults (60+): 14.2% [10.7, 17.6]; (Food Frequency Questionnaire) Adults (<60): 20.9% [95%CI: 18.5, 23.2]; Older adults (60+): 16.6% [13.6, 19.7] |
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Netherlan ds
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Vellinga, 2022 |
Unadjusted mean (g/2000kcal), 95%CI and p value |
Gender: Male: 889g/2000kcal [95%CI: 870, 907]; Female: 898g/2000kcal [877, 918] p > 0.05 |
Age: 1-3: 1202g/2000kcal [95%CI: 1159, 1246]; 4-8: 1252g/2000kcal [1217, 1288]; 9-13: 1209g/2000kcal [1175, 1243]; 1418: 1165g/2000kcal [1124, 1206]; 1930: 962g/2000kcal [921, 1003]; 31-50: 874g/2000kcal [834, 914]; 51-70: 700g/2000kcal [669, 730]; 71-79: 632g/2000kcal [607, 656] p < 0.001 |
Education level: Low: 871g/2000kcal [95%CI: 838, 903]; Moderate: 939g/2000kcal [916, 962]; High: 850g/2000kcal [830, 871] p < 0.001 |
Degree of urbanisation: Low: 876g/2000kcal [856, 896]; Moderate: 898g/2000kcal [868, 928]; High: 916g/2000kcal [891, 942] p < 0.01 |
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Portugal
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Miranda, 2020 |
Unadjusted mean, SE and p value |
Age: Adults (18-64): 23.84% (SE: 0.42); Elderly (65+): 15.96% (SE: 0.56), p < 0.001 |
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| Magalhães, 2021 |
Adjusted beta and 95%CI |
Age by gender (Male (M); Female (F)): (45-64 = reference) 3-9: M: 179g [95%CI: 128, 231]; F: 140g [89, 191]; 10-17: M: 327g [277, 377]; F: 192g [135, 249]; 18-44: M: 235g [190, 280]; F: 100g [67, 133]; 65-84: M: -51g [-93, -9] ; F: -63g [-91, -34] |
Region by gender (Male (M); Female (F)): (North = reference): Centre: M: 0g [95%CI: -51, 52]; F: 7g [-26, 40]; Lisbon Metropolitan Area: M: 76g [19, 133]; F: 39g [-3, 81]; Alentejo: M: 41g [23, 106]; F: 50g [9, 90]; Algarve: M: 32g [-17, 80]; F: 36g [1, 70]; Autonomous Region of Madeira: M: -7g [-53, 39]; F: -23g [-59, 13]; Autonomous Region of Azores: M: 82g [-3, 167]; F: 40 [-3, 90] |
Education by gender (Male (M); Female (F)): (>12 years = reference): <=6 years: M: -68g [95%CI: -124, -12]; F: -51g [-86, - 16]; 7-12 years: M: 7g [-32, 46]; F: 21g [-6, 49] |
Urbanisation by gender (Male (M); Female (F)): (Predominantly urban area = reference): Medially urban area: M: 1g [95%CI: -65, 67]; F: -12g [-49, 24]; Predominantly rural area: M: 0g [-47, 48]; F: -21g [-61, 20] |
Civil status by gender (Male (M); Female (F)): (Single, divorced or widowed = reference): Married, couples: M: -48g [95%CI: - 96, -1]; F: -10g [-38, 17] |
Household members by gender (Male (M); Female (F)): (1-2 = reference): 3-4: M: 13g [95%CI: -29, 54]; F: -6g [-37, 25]; 5+: M: 7g [-63, 77] ; F: -25g [-79, 29] |
Food insecurity by gender (Male (M); Female (F)): (No = reference): Yes: M: -43g [95%CI: - 109, 23]; F: - 11g [-43, 22] |
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Spain
|
Romero Ferreiro, 2021 |
Pearson correlation coefficient and p-value |
Age: p = -0.53, p <0.0001 |
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| Romero Ferreiro, 2022 |
Adjusted beta, SE and p value, p value across time |
Age (continuous) beta: -0.15 (SE:0.01) p < 0.001. Across time (5-24, 25-49, 50-75): DRECE I 1991: p < 0.001; DRECE II 1996: p < 0.001; DRECE III 2004: p = 0.014; DRECE IV 2008: p = 0.035 |
Gender (Male = reference) Female beta: 1.06 (SE:0.33), p = 0.01. Time trend (Male, Female) DRECE I 1991: p = 0.589; DRECE II 1996: p < 0.001; DRECE III 2004: p = 0.031; DRECE IV 2008: p = 0.401 |
Geographical region (North-West, North, North-East, West, Central-South, East, South, Canary Islands) DRECE I 1991: p < 0.0001, DRECE II 1996: p = 0.010; DRECE III 2004 p < 0.001; DRECE IV 2008: p < 0.001 |
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| Blanco-Rojo, 2019 |
Unadjusted p-value across quartiles of UPF intake |
Gender (Male, Female) p trend = 0.39 |
Age (continuous) p trend < 0.001 |
Education level (No formal education, Primary, Secondary or higher) p trend < 0.001 |
Household status (Living alone, Living with others) p trend < 0.001 |
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Switzerland
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Bertoni Maluf, 2022 |
Unadjusted median, IQR and unadjusted and adjusted p-value |
Gender: Male: 29.2% [IQR: 20.8– 39.9]; Female: 28.4% [19.4, 38.5] adjusted p = 0.012 |
Age: 18-29: 34.8% [IQR: 24.5, 45.0] ; 30-39: 31.8% [22.3, 42.0]; 40-49: 28.2% [20.3, 37.8]; 50-64: 25.5% [16.9, 36.6]; 65-75: 26.3% [17.1, 35.0] adjusted p = 0.001 |
Region: German-speaking: 29.6% [IQR: 20.9, 39.6]; Frenchspeaking: 27.2% [17.7, 37.1]; Italianspeaking: 28.0% [16.9, 39.4] adjusted p = 0.002 |
Nationality: Swiss: 29.2% [IQR: 20.3, 39.0]; Non-Swiss: 26.1% [17.5, 37.1] adjusted p = 0.002 |
Household status: One person: 29.0% [IQR: 18.5, 40.6]; Two people: 28.1% [19.7, 37.3]; Three people: 28.8% [19.5, 39.7]; Four people and more: 30.2% [21.5, 40.1] adjusted p = 0.400 |
Education level: Primary & secondary: 29.1% [20.2, 39.7]; Tertiary: 28.4% [19.6, 38.4] adjusted p = 0.060 |
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UK
|
Lam, 2017 |
Adjusted beta and 95%CI |
Gender (Male, Female): 1.31% [95%CI: -0.99, 3.62] |
Age (continuous): - 0.16% [95%CI: - 0.24, -0.09] |
Household status: Other adults in household: 0.45% [95%CI: -2.07 to 2.97]; Children in household: 0.54% [-2.18, 3.26] |
National Statistics Socio-Economic Classification (NS- SEC): Intermediate vs Managerial & professional: -1.05% ([95%CI: -4.11, 2.02]; Routine & manual vs Managerial & professional: 1.52% [95%CI: -1.02, 4.07] |
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| Madruga, 2022 |
Adjusted trends over time, p value, p for interaction between linear UPF intake trend and sociodemographic characteristic |
Gender: Male: p = 0.393; Female: p = 0.983; p for interaction = 0.413 |
Age: 1-3: p = 0.639; 4-10: p = 0.948; 11-18: p = 0.780; 19-64: p = 0.805 65+: p = 0.278. p for interaction = 0.767 |
Region: England North: p = 0.258; England Central/Midlands: p = 0.705; England South (including London): p = 0.687; Scotland: p = 0.732; Wales: p = 0.880; Northern Ireland: p = 0.218. p for interaction = 0.645 |
Occupational Social Class: Routine & manual occupations: p = 0.650; Intermediate occupations: p = 0.481; Higher and lower managerial & professional occupations: p = 0.741. p for interaction = 0.740 |
Race/ethnicity: White: p = 0.559; Mixed ethnic group: p = 0.691; Black or Black British: p = 0.965; Asian or Asian British: p = 0.322; Other race: 0.803. p for interaction = 0.696 |
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| Adams, 2015 |
Adjusted mean intake, beta and 95%Cis |
Gender (Male = reference) Female beta: -1.38 [95%CI: -2.67 to -0.09] |
Occupational Social Class (Managerial & professional = reference) Intermediate beta: 0.34% [95%CI: -1.12, 1.79]; Routine & manual beta: 1.60% [95%CI: -0.05, 3.26] |
Age: (Continuous) beta: -0.18% [95%CI: -0.21, -0.14] |
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| Rauber, 2019 |
Unadjusted mean, SE and p value |
Age: 1.5-10: 63.53% (SE:0.34); 11-18: 68.00% (0.4); 19-64: 54.89% (0.35); 65+: 52.98% (0.52); (1.5-10 = reference) all age groups p < 0.001 |
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| Rauber, 2020 |
Unadjusted mean, SE and p value |
Gender: Male: 55.9% (SE:0.6); Female: 52.8% (0.4); p < 0.05 |
Age: 19-29: 59.2% (1.3); 30-59: 54% (0.4); 60+: 51.8% (0.5); p trend < 0.05 |
Ethnicity: White: 55.4% (SE:0.4); Non-white: 45.4% (1.2); p < 0.05 |
Region: England North: 56.1% (SE:0.7); England Central/Midlands: 56.6% (1.0); England South (including London): 51.7% (0.6); Scotland: 56.5% (1.1); Wales: 55.0% (1.0); Northern Ireland: 58.7% (0.8); (England North = reference) England South (including London) p < 0.05; Northern Ireland p < 0.05 |
Social Class Occupation: Routine & manual: 57.3% (SE:0.7); Intermediate: 53.4% (0.8); Lower managerial & professional: 53.8% (0.7); Higher managerial & professional: 50.3% (0.8); linear p-trend < 0.05 |
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| Nascimento, 2021 |
Unadjusted mean and 95%CI |
Age: 4-10: 65.7% [95%CI: 64.2, 67.1]; 11-18: 67.1% [65.7, 68.5]; 19+: 54.0% [53.0, 55.0] |
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US
|
Kim, 2019 |
Unadjusted p-value across quintiles of UPF intake |
Age (continuous) p < 0.001 |
Gender (Male, Female) p < 0.001 |
Race/ethnicity (Non-Hispanic white, Non-Hispanic black, Mexican American, Other) p < 0.001 |
Poverty level (<130%, 130-<350%, ≥350%) p < 0.001 |
Education level (Less than high school, High school, More than high school) p < 0.001 |
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| Juul, 2021 |
Adjusted trends over time (2001-2 to 2017-18), p-trend values adjusted for multiple comparisons by calculation of false discovery rate q values, and p for interaction between linear UPF intake trend and sociodemographic characteristic |
Gender over time: Male: p-trend = 0.001; Female: p-trend = 0.002; p for interaction = 0.06 |
Age over time: 20-39: p-trend = 0.015; 40-59: p-trend = 0.001; 60+: p-trend = 0.001; p for interaction = 0.15 |
Ethnicity over time: Non-Hispanic white: p-trend = 0.001, Non-Hispanic black: p-trend = 0.001; Hispanic: p-trend = 0.081; p for interaction = 0.31 |
Education over time: High school degree: p-trend = 0.001, High school graduate: p- trend = 0.013; Some college: p-trend = 0.001; College graduate: p-trend = 0.049; p for interaction = 0.24 |
Income over time: <130%: p- trend = 0.024, 130-<350%: p-trend = 0.001, ≥350%: p- trend = 0.001; p for interaction = 0.26 |
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| Juul, 2018 |
Unadjusted p-value across quintiles of UPF intake |
Gender (Male, Female) p = 0.009 |
Age (continuous) p < 0.001 |
Race/Ethnicity (Non-Hispanic white, Non-Hispanic black, Hispanic, Other) p < 0.001 |
Education level (<9th grade, 9th-11th grade, High school graduate/GED, Some college, College graduate or higher) p < 0.001 |
Marital status (Married, Separated/divorced/widowe d, Not married) p < 0.001 |
Family income/poverty ratio (<130%, 130- <350%, ≥350%) p < 0.001 |
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| Baraldi, 2018 |
Adjusted mean intake and 95%CI, and p value for linear time trend |
Gender: Male: 58.3% [95%CI: 57.6, 59.0]; Female: 58.8% [58.1, 59.5]; p linear trend across time: Male = 0.0368; Female = 0.1834 |
Age: 2–9: 65.9% [95%CI: 65.0, 66.8]; 10-19: 66.8% [65.9, 67.7]; 20-39: 59.5% [58.7, 60.3]; 40-59: 55.2% [54.1, 56.4]; 60+: 52.8% [51.9, 53.7]; p linear trend <0.05; p linear trend across time: 2-9 = 0.4518; 10-19 = 0.0128; 20-39 = 0.3529; 40-59 = 0.3821; 60+ = 0.1800 |
Education: Less than high school: 59.55 [95%CI: 58.4, 60.6]; High school: 59.7% [59.1, 60.3]; College: 55.9% [54.6, 57.2]; p linear trend < 0.05; p linear trend across time: Less than high school = 0.1632; High school = 0.0122; College = 0.4667 |
Family income/poverty ratio: ≤1.30: 59.6% [95%CI: 58.6, 60.7]; 1.31–3.50: 58.7% [57.8, 59.7]; >3.50: 57.7% [56.9, 58.6]; p linear trend < 0.05; p linear trend across time: ≤1.30 = 0.1910; 1.31-3.50 = 0.0380; >3.50 = 0.2310 |
Race/ethnicity: Non-Hispanic white: 60.2% [95%CI: 59.4, 60.9]; Non-Hispanic black: 60.6% [59.7, 61.5]; 54.8% [53.2, 56.3]; Mexican-American: 54.8% [53.2, 56.3]; Other Hispanic: 52.0% [50.3, 53.7]; Other: 49.6% [47.3, 51.8]; p linear trend < 0.05; p linear trend across time: Non-Hispanic white = 0.0749; Non-Hispanic black = 0.1512; Mexican-American = 0.0501; Other Hispanic = 0.2563; Other Race = 0.4002 |
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| Steele, 2022 |
Unadjusted mean, SE and p value |
Gender: Male: 55.9% (SE:0.6); Female: 55.0% (0.5); p = 0.123 |
Age: 20-39: 58.9% (SE:0.6) (a); 40-59: 54.6% (0.8) (b); 60+: 52.2% (0.6) (c); p for trend < 0.001 (unlike letters (a-c) are significantly different p < 0.05) |
Race/ethnicity: Mexican American: 53.6% (SE:0.5) (c); Other Hispanic: 47.6% (1.0) (a); Non-Hispanic white: 57.2% (0.5) (b); Non-Hispanic black: 57.3% (0.8) (b); Other race (including multiracial): 45.1% (1.4) (a); p < 0.001; (unlike letters (a-c) are significantly different p < 0.05) |
Income:poverty ratio: <1.30: 57.9% (SE:0.7) (a); >1.30–3.50: 56.9% (0.7) (a); >3.50: 53.3% (0.6) (b); Missing: 52.5% (1.3) (b); p < 0.001; (unlike letters (a-b) are significantly different p < 0.05) |
Education level: <12 years: 55.9% (0.9) (a); 12 years: 59.6% (0.8) (b); >12 years: 54.0% (0.5) (a); p for trend < 0.001; (unlike letters (a-b) are significantly different p < 0.05) |
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| Yang, 2020 |
Unadjuated median intake, IQR and p value |
Gender: Male: 55.0% [IQR: 48.4, 61.7]; Female: 54.8% [47.8, 61.4]; p = 0.325 |
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| Steele, 2020 |
Unadjusted mean, SE and p value |
Gender: Male: 58.4% (SE:0.4); Female: 58.2% (0.5); p > 0.05 |
Age: 6-11: 68.2% (SE:0.5); 12-19: 66.9% (0.7); 20+: 55.9% (0.4); linear p-trend < 0.05 |
Race/ethnicity: Mexican American: 56.8% (SE:0.5) (a); Other Hispanic: 53.5% (0.9) (b); Non-Hispanic white: 59.6% (0.5) (c); Non-Hispanic black: 61.4% (0.8) (c); Other race (including multiracial): 48.6% (1.0) (d); p < 0.001; (unlike letters (a-d) are significantly different p < 0.05) |
Family income:poverty ratio: <1.30: 60.5% (SE:0.7) (c); >1.30–3.50: 59.5% (0.7) (bc); >3.50: 56.3% (0.6) (a); Missing: 56.2% (1.2) (ab); p < 0.001; (unlike letters (a-c) are significantly different p < 0.05) |
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| Zheng, 2020 |
Unadjusted p-value across quartiles of UPF intake |
Gender (Male, Female) p = 0.004 |
Age (20-44, 45-59, 60+) p < 0.001 |
Race/ethnicity (Hispanic, Non-Hispanic White, Non-Hispanic Black, Non-Hispanic Asian, Other races) p < 0.001 |
Marital status (Married/Living with partner, Widowed//Divorced/ Separated/Never married) p < 0.001 |
Education level (< High school, High school, > High school) p < 0.001 |
Annual family income (< $20000, $20000 to < $45000, $45000 to < $75000, ≥ $75000) p = 0.001 |
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| Steele, 2020 |
Unadjusted mean, 95%CI and p value; Adjusted mean, 95%CI and p value (place of birth) |
Gender: Male: 55.3 [95%CI: 54.5, 56.2]; Female: 56.2% [55.3, 57.0] |
Age: 20-39: 58.1% [95%CI: 57.1, 59.0]; 40-59: 54.9% [53.7, 56.1]; 60+: 53.9% [52.8, 55.0] p for linear trend < 0.001 |
Family income:poverty ratio: <1.30: 56.9% [95%CI: 55.6, 58.1]; >1.30– 3.50: 56.8% [55.8, 57.9]; >3.50: 54.5% [53.6, 55.4]; Missing: 54.4% [52.3, 56.5], p < 0.001 |
Education level: <12 years: 55.6% [95%CI: 54.1, 57.0]; 12 years: 58.5% [57.1, 60.0]; >12 years: 54.9% [54.1, 55.8]; p for linear trend = 0.023 |
Race/ethnicity: Mexican American: 54.0% [95%CI: 53.0, 55.0]; Other Hispanic: 49.1% [47.3, 50.9]; Non-Hispanic White: 57.4% [56.4, 58.3]; Non-Hispanic Black: 59.4% [58.0, 60.8]; Non-Hispanic Asian: 38.3% [36.9, 39.7]; Other race (including multi-racial): 57.5% [54.4, 60.5] |
Place of birth (adjusted): US-born: 57.9% [95%CI: 57.3, 58.5]; p < 0.001; Foreign-born: 45.4% [44.0, 46.8] p < 0.001 |
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| Pachipala, 2022 |
Unadjusted mean, 95%CI and p value |
Race/ethnicity: Non-Hispanic Asian American: 39.3% [95%CI: 38.1, 40.5]; Non-Hispanic White: 57.7% [56.9, 58.5]; Non-Hispanic Black: 60.1% [58.8, 61.3]; Hispanic: 52.7% [51.7, 53.6]; Non-Hispanic Other: 57.7% [55.8, 59.6]; (Non-Hispanic Asian American = reference) all p < 0.01 |
Gender within ethnicity (Male, Female): (Non-Hispanic Asian American = reference) all p < 0.01 |
Age within ethnicity (18-24, 25-44, 45-64, ≥65): (Non-Hispanic Asian American = reference) all p < 0.01 |
Marital status within ethnicity (Married, Separated/divorced/ widowed/Not married): (Non-Hispanic Asian American = reference) all p < 0.01 |
Education level within ethnicity (<High school, High school graduate/General Equivalency Diploma, Some college, ≥College graduate): (Non-Hispanic Asian American = reference) all p < 0.01 |
Family income:poverty ratio within ethnicity (<1.30, 1.30-3.49, ≥3.50): (Non-Hispanic Asian American = reference) all p < 0.01 |
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| Buckley, 2019 |
Unadjusted p-value across quartiles of UPF intake |
Gender (Male, Female) p = 0.06 |
Age group (6-12, 12-19, 20+) p < 0.001; Age (continuous), p < 0.001 |
Race/ethnicity (Non-Hispanic white, Non-Hispanic black, Mexican American, Asian American, Other) p < 0.001 |
Family income:poverty ratio (<1.30, 1.30-3.49, ≥3.50): p = 0.007 |
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| Kim, 2019 |
Unadjusted p-value across quartiles of UPF intake |
Gender (Male, Female) p = 0.79 |
Age group (6-12, 12-19, 20+) p < 0.001; Age (continuous), p < 0.001 |
Race/ethnicity (Non-Hispanic white, Non-Hispanic black, Hispanic, Asian American, Other) p < 0.001 |
Family income:poverty ratio (<1.30, 1.30-3.49, ≥3.50): p = 0.24 |
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Multinati onal across Europe (22 countries)
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Mertens, 2021 |
Unadjusted mean intake and p value |
Gender (Male (M); Female (F); p value): Austria: M:31.7%; F: 27.6%; 0.551; Belgium: M: 31.9%; F: 30.2%; 0.972; Croatia: M: 18.5%; F: 19.7%; 0.539; Cyprus: M: 20.3%; F: 21.4%; 0.826; Czech Republic: M: 27.0%; F: 28.2%; 0.619; Denmark: M: 25.3%; F: 24.8%; 0.654; Estonia: M: 17.4%; F: 18.4%; 0.467; Finland: M: 31.0%; F: 32.5%; 0.565; France: M: 28.4%; F: 29.1%; 0.588; Germany: M: 38.0%; F: 38.9%; 0.393; Greece: M: 20.1%; F: 23.7%; 0.311; Hungary: M: 18.0%; F: 17.1%; 0.581; Ireland: M: 31.8%; F: 35.3%; 0.121; Italy: M: 13.0%; F: 13.8%; 0.447; Latvia: M: 32.0%; F: 30.7%; 0.488; The Netherlands: M: 37.0%; F: 37.3%; 0.834; Portugal: M: 19.8%; F: 24.5%; <0.01; Romania: M: 14.6%; F: 15.9%; 0.403; Slovenia: M: 21.7%; F: 23.5%; 0.549; Spain: M: 25.0%; F: 25.3%; 0.947; Sweden: M: 40.6%; F: 43.8%; 0.227; United Kingdom: M: 39.7%; F: 41.3%; 0.369 |
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