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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2026 Mar 5.
Published before final editing as: Diabetes Care. 2025 Aug 19:dc250452. doi: 10.2337/dc25-0452

Table 2. Associations between CGM metrics at enrolment and pregnancy outcomes in women with gestational diabetes.

Results are presented as odds ratio (95% confidence intervals). For the continuous CGM metrics the ORs are per standard deviation change in the metrics. Significance levels; *P<0.05; **P<0.01, ***P<0.001.

CGM METRICS AT ENROLMENT (~29 WEEKS); n=332† LGA Intergrowth SGA Intergrowth Preterm NICU admission Neonatal Hypoglycemia
n=61 n=16 n=30 n=30 n=17
z-Mean CGM glucose mmol 1.57 (1.16 to 2.13)** 1.89 (1.10 to 3.24)* 1.47 (0.99 to 2.18) 1.39 (0.93 to 2.10) 1.40 (0.87 to 2.24)
z-TIR 63-140 mg/dL; 3.5-7.8 mmol/L 0.54 (0.40 to 0.73)*** 0.69 (0.44 to 1.09) 0.74 (0.52 to 1.04) 0.76 (0.54 to 1.07) 0.73 (0.49 to 1.08)
z-TAR 63-140 mg/dL; 3.5-7.8 mmol/L 1.80 (1.34 to 2.41)*** 1.52 (0.97 to 2.37) 1.39 (0.99 to 1.95) 1.35 (0.96 to 1.89) 1.36 (0.92 to 2.01)
z-TIR 63-120 mg/dL; 3.5-6.7 mmol/L 0.66 (0.50 to 0.87)** 0.54 (0.33 to 0.89)* 0.78 (0.54 to 1.12) 0.73 (0.50 to 1.07) 0.70 (0.44 to 1.09)
z-TAR 63-120 mg/dL; 3.5-6.7 mmol/L 1.49 (1.13 to 1.97)** 1.88 (1.14 to 3.09)* 1.31 (0.90 to 1.89) 1.38 (0.94 to 2.01) 1.42 (0.90 to 2.23)
z-TBR 63mg/dl; 3.5 mmol/L 1.05 (0.77 to 1.43) 0.76 (0.39 to 1.48) 0.83 (0.50 to 1.36) 0.75 (0.39 to 1.44) 1.02 (0.59 to 1.75)
z-Nocturnal mean 63-140
mg/dL; 3.5-7.8 mmol/L 		1.56 (1.13 to 2.14)** 1.77 (1.04 to 2.99)* 1.35 (0.89 to 2.04) 1.15 (0.75 to 1.77) 1.23 (0.76 to 1.97)
z-Nocturnal TIR 63-140
mg/dL; 3.5-7.8 mmol/L 		0.62 (0.46 to 0.84)** 0.83 (0.50 to 1.38) 0.81 (0.56 to 1.18) 0.82 (0.57 to 1.17) 0.86 (0.60 to 1.25)
z-Nocturnal TAR 63-140
mg/dL; 3.5-7.8 mmol/L 		1.68 (1.24 to 2.29)** 1.33 (0.84 to 2.11) 1.25 (0.86 to 1.80) 1.22 (0.86 to 1.73) 1.15 (0.79 to 1.66)
z-Nocturnal TIR 63-120
mg/dL; 3.5-6.7 mmol/L 		0.72 (0.55 to 0.95)* 0.58 (0.35 to 0.96)* 0.87 (0.59 to 1.29) 0.84 (0.57 to 1.24) 0.78 (0.49 to 1.23)
z-Nocturnal TAR 63-120
mg/dL; 3.5-6.7 mmol/L 		1.41 (1.07 to 1.86)* 1.79 (1.09 to 2.94)* 1.15 (0.78 to 1.70) 1.19 (0.80 to 1.75) 1.27 (0.80 to 2.02)
z-Nocturnal TBR 63 mg/dL;
3.5 mmol/L 		0.78 (0.52 to 1.19) 0.67 (0.32 to 1.40) 0.97 (0.66 to 1.44) 0.98 (0.63 to 1.53) 1.05 (0.61 to 1.82)
CV 1.10 (1.02 to 1.19)* 1.03 (0.90 to 1.17) 1.04 (0.94 to 1.15) 1.02 (0.91 to 1.13) 0.99 (0.86 to 1.14)
SD 7.17 (2.53 to 20.32)*** 3.30 (0.59 to 18.38) 3.10 (0.83 to 11.58) 2.21 (0.57 to 8.55) 2.16 (0.41 to 11.24)
z-HbA1c (N=130) 0.81 (0.49 to 1.32) 0.64 (0.12 to 3.27) 3.07 (1.43 to 6.58)** 0.35 (0.12 to 1.05) 0.39 (0.09 to 1.71)
CGM TARGETS AT 29 WEEKS
Mean CGM glucose <
110mg/dL; 6.1mmol/L 		0.41 (0.22 to 0.77)** 0.26 (0.08 to 0.79)* 0.52 (0.23 to 1.19) 0.50 (0.21 to 1.18) 0.44 (0.15 to 1.29)
TIR ≥90% target; 63-140
mg/dL; 3.5-7.8 mmol/L 		0.38 (0.20 to 0.70)** 0.30 (0.10 to 0.91)* 0.50 (0.22 to 1.13) 0.47 (0.20 to 1.08) 0.43 (0.15 to 1.26)
TIR ≥94% target; 63-140
mg/dL; 3.5-7.8 mmol/L 		0.67 (0.37 to 1.20) 0.40 (0.13 to 1.19) 0.71 (0.33 to 1.54) 0.84 (0.37 to 1.89) 0.73 (0.25 to 2.11)
TAR <10% target; 63-140
mg/dL; 3.5-7.8 mmol/L 		0.39 (0.20 to 0.73)** 0.19 (0.06 to 0.62)** 0.40 (0.17 to 0.94)* 0.57 (0.23 to 1.38) 0.37 (0.13 to 1.09)
TAR <4% target; 63-140
mg/dL; 3.5-7.8 mmol/L 		0.59 (0.32 to 1.07) 0.31 (0.10 to 0.94)* 0.67 (0.30 to 1.47) 0.66 (0.28 to 1.51) 0.87 (0.30 to 2.51)
TIR ≥70% target; 63-120
mg/dL; 3.5-6.7 mmol/L 		0.38 (0.20 to 0.71)** 0.29 (0.09 to 0.94)* 0.53 (0.23 to 1.25) 0.59 (0.24 to 1.41) 0.40 (0.14 to 1.19)
TAR <30% target; 63-120
mg/dL; 3.5-6.7 mmol/L 		0.37 (0.20 to (0.69)** 0.29 (0.09 to 0.92)* 0.52 (0.22 to 1.22) 0.52 (0.22 to 1.19) 0.39 (0.13 to 1.16)
TBR <4% target; 63 mg/dL;
3.5 mmol/L 		0.96 (0.39 to 2.35) 1.53 (0.32 to 7.25) 0.92 (0.32 to 2.61) 1.54 (0.41 to 5.80) 0.56 (0.13 to 2.30)
Mean nocturnal glucose <
110mg/dL; 6.1mmol/L 		0.34 (0.18 to 0.63)** 0.17 (0.05 to 0.57) 0.42 (0.19 to 0.97)* 0.49 (0.21 to 1.12) 0.50 (0.17 to 1.45)
Nocturnal TIR ≥90% target;
63-140 mg/dL; 3.5-7.8 mmol/L 		0.43 (0.22 to 0.82)* 0.75 (0.23 to 2.50) 0.76 (0.32 to 1.82) 0.73 (0.30 to 1.75) 0.55 (0.18 to 1.68)
Nocturnal TAR <10% target;
63-140 mg/dL; 3.5-7.8 mmol/L 		0.34 (0.17 to 0.68)** 0.51 (0.13 to 2.02) 0.83 (0.29 to 2.35) 0.53 (0.21 to 1.36) 0.50 (0.15 to 1.65)
Nocturnal TIR ≥70% target;
63-120 mg/dL; 3.5-6.7 mmol/L 		0.47 (0.25 to 0.88)* 0.26 (0.08 to 0.86)* 0.76 (0.31 to 1.83) 0.77 (0.31 to 1.92) 0.74 (0.24 to 2.32)
Nocturnal TAR <30% target;
63-120 mg/dL; 3.5-6.7 mmol/L 		0.45 (0.24 to 0.86)* 0.25 (0.07 to 0.82)* 0.71 (0.29 to 1.73) 0.75 (0.30 to 1.87) 0.70 (0.22 to 2.20)
Nocturnal TBR <4% target;
63 mg/dL; 3.5 mmol/L 		1.60 (0.63 to 4.09) 1.19 (0.31 to 4.56) 0.96 (0.36 to 2.55) 1.17 (0.41 to 3.37) 1.28 (0.26 to 6.32)
CGM MARKERS OF INCREASED RISK AT 29 WEEKS
Mean CGM glucose ≥
110mg/dL; 6.1mmol/L 		2.44 (1.31 to 4.53)** 3.91 (1.27 to 12.08)* 1.92 (0.84 to 4.39) 2.11 (0.90 to 4.93) 2.20 (0.75 to 6.44)
TIR <90% target; 63-140
 mg/dL; 3.5-7.8 mmol/L 		2.66 (1.43 to 4.96)** 3.31 (1.09 to 10.00)* 1.99 (0.88 to 4.51) 2.02 (0.86 to 4.74) 2.26 (0.78 to 6.60)
TIR <94% target; 63-140
mg/dL; 3.5-7.8 mmol/L 		1.50 (0.83 to 2.70) 2.52 (0.84 to 7.54) 1.40 (0.65 to 3.04) 1.19 (0.53 to 2.69) 1.37 (0.47 to 3.98)
TAR ≥10% target; 63-140
mg/dL; 3.5-7.8 mmol/L 		2.60 (1.37 to 4.95)** 5.18 (1.61 to 16.63)** 2.48 (1.07 to 5.77)* 1.92 (0.80 to 4.59) 2.76 (0.94 to 8.14)
TAR ≥4% target; 63-140
mg/dL; 3.5-7.8 mmol/L 		1.70 (0.94 to 3.10) 3.24 (1.06 to 9.87)* 1.50 (0.68 to 3.29) 1.53 (0.66 to 3.53) 1.15 (0.40 to 3.32)
TIR <70% target; 63-120
mg/dL; 3.5-6.7 mmol/L 		2.65 (1.41 to 4.98)** 3.41 (1.06 to 10.98)* 1.88 (0.80 to 4.39) 1.70 (0.71 to 4.09) 2.55 (0.86 to 7.52)
TAR ≥30% target; 63-120
mg/dL; 3.5-6.7 mmol/L 		2.71 (1.44 to 5.09)** 3.50 (1.09 to 11.30)* 1.92 (0.82 to 4.50) 1.79 (0.75 to 4.29) 2.50 (0.84 to 7.43)
TBR ≥4% target; 63 mg/dL;
3.5 mmol/l 		1.04 (0.43 to 2.56) 0.65 (0.14 to 3.10) 1.09 (0.38 to 3.11) 0.68 (0.18 to 2.55) 1.84 (0.45 to 7.55)
Mean nocturnal glucose ≥
110mg/dL; 6.1mmol/L 		2.97 (1.58 to 5.58)** 5.74 (1.75 to 18.84) 2.36 (1.04 to 5.36)* 2.05 (0.90 to 4.67) 2.00 (0.69 to 5.84)
Nocturnal TIR <90% target;
63-140 mg/dL; 3.5-7.8 mmol/L 		2.33 (1.22 to 4.44)* 1.33 (0.40 to 4.44) 1.31 (0.55 to 3.13) 1.38 (0.57 to 3.32) 1.82 (0.60 to 5.59)
Nocturnal TAR ≥10% target;
63-140 mg/dL; 3.5-7.8 mmol/L 		2.99 (1.48 to 6.03)** 1.97 (0.50 to 7.86) 1.21 (0.42 to 3.43) 1.89 (0.73 to 4.86) 1.99 (0.61 to 6.53)
Nocturnal TIR <70% target;
63-120 mg/dL; 3.5-6.7 mmol/L 		2.14 (1.13 to 4.05)* 3.83 (1.16 to 12.66)* 1.32 (0.55 to 3.21) 1.30 (0.52 to 3.24) 1.35 (0.43 to 4.20)
Nocturnal TAR ≥30% target;
63-120 mg/dL; 3.5-6.7 mmol/L 		2.22 (1.17 to 4.20)* 4.07 (1.22 to 13.58)* 1.41 (0.58 to 3.42) 1.34 (0.53 to 3.35) 1.43 (0.46 to 4.49)
Nocturnal TBR ≥4% target;
63 mg/dL; 3.5 mmol/l 		0.62 (0.24 to 1.59) 0.84 (0.22 to 3.21) 1.04 (0.39 to 2.78) 0.85 (0.30 to 2.46) 0.78 (0.16 to 3.83)
†

The number of women with data for all variables entered in the logistic regression model

CGM: continuous glucose monitoring; LGA: large for gestational age; SGA: small for gestational age; NICU: neonatal intensive care unit; TIR: time in range; TAR: time above range; TBR: time below range; CV: Coefficient of variation; SD: standard deviation.