Figure 1.

Roles of autophagy in cancer. Autophagy mechanisms are involved in several hallmarks in cancer cells. Autophagy can lead to cell survival or death, depending on the presence, duration, and intensity of the stimulus in which it develops. In addition, autophagy can modulate the EMT phenotype after the adaptation to hypoxia. Moreover, the metabolic switch of cancer cells into aerobic glycolysis (i.e., the Warburg effect) is sustained by autophagy activation, ensuring energetic requirements, and metabolic homeostasis. On the other hand, the activation of autophagy process influences the suppression or activation of antitumor immune response, depending on the stage, genetic, and microenvironmental conditions. For example, in response to chemotherapy, autophagy-competent cancer cells attracted dendritic cells, and T lymphocytes to the tumor, activating the immune response. Moreover, autophagy activation maintains the CSC phenotype and functions inside the tumor. Also, an upregulated autophagic activity are involved in cancer progression and metastasis. Furthermore, autophagic machinery triggered by anticancer drugs may facilitate multiple drug resistance in cancer cells and tumor survival. All these processes depend on the cell type, genetic background, and the microenvironment stimulus in the tumors.