Table 3.
Characteristics of patients hospitalized for COVID-19, stratified by whether they received medications to treat COVID-19
| Patient characteristics | Not receiving COVID-19 medications, N = 1147 | Receiving COVID-19 medications, N = 1674 | aOR (95% CI)a |
|---|---|---|---|
| Demographics | |||
| Age, years | |||
| 15–49 | 283 (25) | 371 (22) | Ref |
| 50–64 | 314 (27) | 509 (30) | 1.25 (0.96–1.62) |
| 65–74 | 201 (18) | 341 (20) | 1.30 (0.95–1.76) |
| 75–84 | 195 (17) | 276 (16) | 1.28 (0.92–1.79) |
| 85 + | 154 (13) | 177 (11) | 1.37 (0.93–2.01) |
| Race | |||
| White | 591 (52) | 829 (50) | Ref |
| Black | 215 (19) | 285 (17) | 0.99 (0.76–1.28) |
| Asian | 44 (4) | 62 (4) | 0.93 (0.58–1.49) |
| Native Hawaiian/Pacific Island | 2 (0) | 5 (0) | 1.48 (0.22–9.85) |
| Other | 295 (26) | 493 (29) | 1.10 (0.87–1.39) |
| Sex | |||
| Female | 549 (48) | 719 (43) | Ref |
| Male | 598 (52) | 955 (57) | 1.02 (0.84–1.23) |
| Severity | |||
| 1 | 597 (21) | 403 (14) | Ref |
| 2 | 257 (9) | 345 (12) | 1.50 (1.16–1.92)c |
| 3 | 87 (3) | 149 (5) | 1.50 (1.05–2.13)c |
| 4 | 69 (2) | 83 (3) | 1.70 (1.10–2.62)c |
| 5 | 267 (9) | 564 (20) | 3.53 (2.73–4.57)c |
| Cohort entry date | |||
| Before 15/4/2020d | 274 (22) | 298 (19) | Ref |
| After 15/4/2020d | 1003 (79) | 1246 (81) | 0.11 (0.09– 0.14)c |
| COVID test | |||
| COVID test before hospitalization | 255 (22) | 317 (19) | Ref |
| COVID test during hospitalization | 892 (78) | 1357 (81) | 1.31 (1.03–1.65)c |
| Code status on index date | |||
| Full code | 756 (66) | 1181 (71) | Ref |
| DNI only | 10 (1) | 21 (1) | 1.54 (0.64–3.68) |
| DNR ± DNI | 201 (18) | 197 (12) | 0.79 (0.58–1.07) |
| Unknown | 180 (16) | 275 (16) | 1.63 (1.25–2.13) |
| Vital signs groups on index date, N (%) | |||
| Heart rate, bpm | |||
| ≤ 100 | 982 (86) | 1411 (84) | Refb |
| > 100 | 165 (14) | 263 (16) | 1.13 (0.87–1.46) |
| Oxygen saturation, % | |||
| > 93 | 1024 (89) | 1359 (81) | Refb |
| ≤ 93 | 123 (11) | 315 (19) | 1.46 (1.13–1.88)c |
| Temperature, °C, N (%) | |||
| < 37.5 | 642 (56) | 565 (34) | Ref |
| 37.5–38.0 | 207 (18) | 385 (23) | 1.44 (1.13–1.83)c |
| 38.1–39.0 | 182 (16) | 432 (26) | 1.59 (1.24–2.03)c |
| > 39.0 | 113 (10) | 285 (17) | 1.63 (1.23–2.18)c |
| Missing | 3 (0) | 7 (0) | 0.82 (0.16–4.19) |
| Baseline co-morbidities | |||
| Asthma | 130 (11) | 209 (12) | 1.32 (0.98–1.77) |
| Diabetes mellitus | 368 (29) | 482 (31) | 1.10 (0.87–1.40) |
| Hypertension | 618 (48) | 768 (50) | 1.17 (0.93–1.47) |
| Malignancy | 130 (11) | 241 (14) | 1.20 (0.90–1.61) |
| Organ transplant | 9 (1) | 42 (3) | 4.19 (1.90–9.24)c |
| Medication use in 1 year prior to the index date | |||
| Systemic steroids | 164 (19) | 287 (24) | 1.53 (1.15–2.03)c |
| Antidepressant | 285 (33) | 302 (25) | 0.78 (0.60–1.00) |
| NSAIDs | 375 (43) | 460 (38) | 0.81 (0.64–1.02) |
| Baseline laboratory test classification | |||
| Albumin, g/dL | |||
| ≥ 3.3 | 221 (19) | 281 (17) | Ref |
| <3.3 | 823 (72) | 1207 (72) | 0.90 (0.69–1.16) |
| Missing | 103 (9) | 186 (11) | 1.23 (0.87–1.75) |
| C-reactive protein, mg/L | |||
| 0–8 | 133 (12) | 82 (5) | Ref |
| 8–100 | 508 (44) | 727 (43) | 1.39 (0.96–2.01) |
| > 100 | 298 (26) | 625 (37) | 1.96 (1.32–2.91)c |
| Missing | 208 (18) | 240 (14) | 1.14 (0.71–1.83) |
| d-Dimer, ng/mL | |||
| < 500 | 224 (20) | 357 (21) | Ref |
| 500–100 | 223 (19) | 268 (16) | 0.85 (0.62–1.15) |
| > 1000 | 321 (28) | 497 (30) | 1.18 (0.89–1.56) |
| Missing | 379 (33) | 552 (33) | 1.18 (0.88–1.60) |
| Glucose level, mg/dL | |||
| ≤ 180 | 962 (84) | 1352 (81) | Refb |
| > 180 | 185 (16) | 322 (19) | 1.22 (0.94–1.60) |
| Hemoglobin, g/dL | |||
| ≥ 12 | 737 (64) | 1206 (32) | Refb |
| <12 | 410 (36) | 468 (28) | 0.84 (0.68–1.04) |
| Lymphocyte count, K/uL | |||
| > 0.8 | 762 (66) | 965 (58) | Ref |
| <0.8 | 342 (30) | 619 (37) | 1.06 (0.86–1.30) |
| Missing | 43 (4) | 90 (5) | 1.57 (0.93–2.66) |
| Procalcitonin, ng/mL | |||
| <0.08 | 257 (22) | 313 (19) | Ref |
| > 0.08 | 614 (54) | 1042 (62) | 1.27 (0.99–1.63) |
| Missing | 276 (24) | 319 (19) | 1.01 (0.71–1.45) |
ALP alkaline phosphatase, ALT alanine aminotransferase, aOR adjusted odds ratio, CI confidence interval, DNI do not intubate, DNR do not resuscitate, eGFR estimated glomerular filtration rate, ESR erythrocyte sedimentation rate, NSAIDs nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, PT-INR prothrombin time and internal normalized ratio, Ref reference, WBC white blood cell
aaOR adjusted for all the 26 variables selected by least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) regression from 105 candidate predictors (see the full list in Appendix 2 of the ESM)
bThe reference group was merged with the missing category because of small cell/non-convergence
cSignificant associations
dMedian calendar date among all the cohort entry dates of patients included in the study