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. 2020 Nov 4;10:19057. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-76226-8

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© The Author(s) 2020

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Disruptions of the air–water interface under Category 1 (U₁₀ = 40 m s⁻¹) tropical cyclone conditions from the laboratory and computational data. (a) Finger-like structure formed in the absence of surfactants during the laboratory experiment. (b) Branch-like structure formed in the presence of surfactants during the laboratory experiment. (c) Finger-like structure formed in the absence of surfactants in the VOF-to-DPM. (d) Branch-like structure formed in the presence of surfactants in the VOF-to-DPM.