Figure 5.

Evolutionary relationships of ape and human P. vivax strains. (a) A phylogenetic network based on pairwise distances of coding sequences from all published ape and selected human P. vivax genomes. Sequences from Gilabert and colleagues (triangles) were used as published (Pvl01) or obtained from sequencing reads following the SNP calling procedure described by the authors (52), with the dominant alleles (by read count) used at heterozygous positions. Other genome-wide ape P. vivax sequences from Loy and colleagues (circles) and human P. vivax sequences (black) from Hupalo and colleagues have been described (61, 75). The network is based on 79,492 nucleotide positions from 280 genes with data included from all samples. Ape P. vivax sequences obtained from chimpanzees in Cameroon, Gabon and Cote d’Ivoire are shown in red (52, 75) and one mosquito-derived genome sequence from Gabon is shown in orange (52). (b) A maximum likelihood tree of partial sequences (405 bp) from one nuclear gene (PVP01_1418300) illustrates an example of human P. vivax falling within the ape P. vivax radiation. The tree is rooted with P. cynomolgi. Human (black), and chimpanzee (red), gorilla (blue) and mosquito (orange) derived ape P. vivax sequences are as in (a), except for the addition of an additional chimpanzee-derived (Pvl06) parasite (52). Parasite sequences were generated from ape blood and fecal samples described (52, 75). Bootstrap values >70% are shown. The scale bars indicate nucleotide substitutions per site.