Table 3.
Case reports of seizure, encephalitis, meningoencephalitis, and CNS demyelination related to COVID-19.
| Region | Age, Gender | Neurological symptoms on admission (day from admission) | Other symptoms (onset day prior neurologic symptoms) | Admission serum labs (or day from admission) | CSF (day from admission) | Imaging or EEG (day from admission) | Treatments received | Outcome | Ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Seizure | |||||||||
| Madrid, Spain | 26 days, M | Two paroxysmal episodes: 1st, several-minute upward eyes rolling & generalized hypertonia associated with a feeding; 2nd, several-minute generalized hypertonia & facial cyanosis during sleep. No abnormal movements. | 12-h fever, rhinorrhea, & vomiting | Mild ↑ CK (380 U/L), LDH (390 U/L) & fibrinogen (4.18 mg/dL); normal CBCdiff, BMP, LFTs, CRP, & BCx/UCx; positive COVID-19 nasopharyngeal swab | Normal | Cranial ultrasound: normal. cEEG: continuous background patters with sleep-wake cycles without electrical and clinical seizures. |
Six-day hospitalization with supportive care | Favorable | (Chacón-Aguilar et al., 2020) |
| New York, USA | 6 weeks, M | Two brief 10–15 s episodes of upward gaze & bilateral leg stiffening. No abnormal movements. | Fever & cough | Leukopenia (5.07 K/μL), ↑ procalcitonin (0.21 ng/mL), normal BMP; positive for rhinovirus / enterovirus PCR; positive COVID-19 nasopharyngeal swab | Normal | Brain MRI: normal. cEEG: Excess of temporal sharp transients for age & intermittent vertex delta slowing with normal sleep-wake cycling. |
One-day hospitalization | Favorable | (Dugue et al., 2020) |
| Brooklyn, USA | 72, M | Altered mental status requiring intubation (admission); followed by multiple episodes of generalized tonic colonic movements (day 3) | Dyspnea | Lymphocytopenia (0.5 K), leukopenia (4 K), ↑ CRP (61 mg/L) & LDH (230 U/L), negative nasopharyngeal swab for influenza A and B, positive COVID-19 nasopharyngeal swab | NR | Head CT scan: chronic microvascular ischemic changes with no acute changes. Brain MRI: not done due to patient unstable condition. cEEG: Six left temporal seizures & left temporal sharp waves which were epileptogenic. |
Transient oseltamivir; hydroxychloroquine, azithromycin, vancomycin, piperacillin tazobactam, versed & levetiracetam with additional valproate | Death due to cardiac arrest (day 5) | (Sohal and Mossammat, 2020) |
| Encephalitis / Meningoencephalitis | |||||||||
| Yamanashi, Japan | 24, M | Multiple generalized seizures, unconsciousness & neck stiffness | Fever & generalized fatigue (9 days prior); headache & sore throat (5 days prior) | ↑ WBC (mainly neutrophils) & CRP; negative HSV1/VZV IgM; negative COVID-19 nasopharyngeal swab | Day 3: ↑ pressure (320 mmH2O), 12 WBC (10 mononuclear), positive COVID-19 rRT-PCR | Head CT scan: normal. Brain DWI MRI: hyperintensity along the wall of inferior horn of right lateral ventricle; FLAIR MRI: hyperintense signal changes in the right mesial temporal lobe & hippocampus with slight hippocampal atrophy with no contrast enhancement, suggestive of right lateral ventriculitis & encephalitis mainly on right mesial lobe & hippocampus; T2-weighted image: pan-paranasal sinusitis. |
Transient ceftriaxone, vancomycin, acyclovir & steroids; levetiracetam; favipiravir | Poor; ongoing (>15 days) ICU stay due to encephalitis & bacterial pneumonia | (Moriguchi, Harii, 2020) |
| Wuhan, China | NR, M | Acute confusion, nuchal rigidity, Kernig, Brudzinski & Babinski signs. | Fever, dyspnea & myalgia (12 days prior) | ↓ WBC (lymphocytopenia), positive COVID-19 nasopharyngeal swab. | Mild ↑ pressure (220 mmHg), normal protein (80 mg/dL), 1 WBC, negative COVID-19 rRT-PCR, IgM & IgG | Head CT scan: normal. | Supportive care, mannitol infusion | Favorable; complete recovery within 14 days | (Ye, Ren, 2020a) |
| Nanjing, China | 64, M | Acute lethargy & unresponsiveness, positive ankle clonus (left>right), left Babinski & Chaddock signs, & mild neck stiffness | Fever, cough (13 days prior), insomnia & myalgia (11 days prior) | ↑ CRP (10.74 mg/L), normal WBC, positive COVID-19 nasopharyngeal swab. | Day 6: pressure (200 mmH2O), normal protein (27.5 mg/dL), 1 WBC, negative COVID-19 rRT-PCR | Head CT scan: normal. | NR | Favorable; recovery within 14 days | (Yin, Feng, 2020) |
| Brescia, Italy | 60, M | Five-day progressive irritability, confusion, asthenia, cognitive fluctuations; evolving to severe akinetic mutism, positive palmomental & glabella reflexes, & nuchal rigidity | Fever & cough (3 days after onset of neurologic symptoms) | ↑ D-dimer (968 μg/L); normal CBCdiff, CRP, fibrinogen & ferritin; negative autoimmune encephalitis antibody panel; positive COVID-19 nasopharyngeal swab | Admission: ↑ protein (69.6 mg/dL), 18 WBC (100% lymphocytes), negative culture/viral/COVID-19 rRT-PCR. Repeat one day after steroid: ↑protein (127.2 mg/dL), 18 WBC (100% lymphocytes); ↑ IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α & β2-microglobulin; normal tau & neurofilament light; negative culture / viral / COVID-19 rRT-PCR |
Head CT scan: normal. Brain MRI: normal. EEG: generalized slowing with decreased reactivity to acoustic stimuli. |
Lopinavir, ritonavir, hydroxychloroquine, ampicillin & acyclovir, 5-day methylprednisolone (1 g/day), post-discharge oral prednisone with rapid taper | Favorable; residual mild disinhibition & fluctuating alertness; normal exam on day 11 | (Pilotto, Odolini, 2020) |
| Varese, Italy | 22, F | Admission: acute loss of consciousness, hypocapnia & hypoxia, requiring intubation. Day 15: acute flaccid paraparesis, lower hyperreflexia, urine/bowel incontinence, & lower limbs hypoesthesia |
Dyspnea & fever (concurrent) | Leukocytosis (28.7 K), ↑ CRP (136.1 mg/L), D-dimer (>9000 μg/L), glucose (744 mg/dL), LDH (729 U/L) & AST (144 U/L); normal RFT; positive COVID-19 nasopharyngeal swab | Day 18: mild ↑ protein (53 mg/dL), normal WBC, negative COVID-19 rRT-PCR. | Head CT / CT angiogram (admission): a tiny right frontal parenchymal hemorrhage; no vascular malformations. Brain & Spine MRI: Only a late subacute phase tiny frontal hemorrhage (8 mm of maximum diameter) |
Antiviral & immunomodulatory therapies | Favorable; recovery after 15 days | (Giorgianni et al., 2020) |
| Barcelona, Spain | 25, M | One-day headache, left-sided paresthesia, & ipsilateral paresis, evolving to confusion & agitation (12h) | Concurrent fever | Mild ↑ D-dimer (600 μg/L), normal CBCdiff | ↑ protein (105.5 mg/dL), IL-1β (14.8 pg/mL), IL-6 (190 pg/mL) & ACE (15.5 U/L); normal WBC, negative COVID-19 rRT-PCR. | Head CT scan / brain MRI: normal. | Acyclovir, ampicillin, & ceftriaxone | Favorable, recovery within 1 day | (Bodro et al., 2020) |
| Barcelona, Spain | 49, M | 7-day myalgia with acute difficulty naming objects, temporospatial disorientation, confusion, & agitation | Persistent fever, myalgias & cough (7 days prios) | Mild lymphocytopenia, mild ↑ D-dimer (600 μg/L), LDH (254 U/L) & ferritin (428 μg/L) | ↑ protein (115.5 mg/dL), IL-6 (25 pg/mL) & ACE (10.9 U/L); normal WBC, negative COVID-19 rRT-PCR. | Head CT scan / brain MRI (day 2): normal. | Acyclovir, ampicillin, & ceftriaxone | Favorable, recovering within 3 days | (Bodro, Compta, 2020) |
| Lausanne, Switzerland | 64, F | Acute psychosis, tonic-clonic seizure followed by disorientation, attention deficit, verbal and motor perseverations, bilateral grasping, alternating with psychotic symptoms (hyper-religiosity with mystic delusions, visual hallucinations). | Mild fatigue, myalgia, cough (5 days prior) | Positive COVID-19 nasopharyngeal swab | ↑ Protein (466 mg/dL), 17 WBC, negative culture, viral PCR & COVID-19 rRT-PCR & anti-NMDA antibody |
Brain MRI: normal. Admission EEG: nonconvulsive, focal status epilepticus (abundant bursts of anterior low-medium voltage irregular spike-and waves superimposed on an irregularly slowed theta background) Repeat EEG at 56 h: normal. |
IV clonazepam & valproate | Favorable; recovery within 96 h | (Bernard-Valnet, Pizzarotti, 2020) |
| Lausanne, Switzerland | 67, F | Intense wake-up headache followed by drowsiness and confusion, motor perseverations, bilateral grasping, aggressiveness and left hemianopia and sensory hemineglect | Mild respiratory symptoms with confirmed COVID-19 (17 days prior) | Positive COVID-19 nasopharyngeal swab | ↑ Protein (461 mg/dL), 21 WBC, negative culture, viral PCR & COVID-19 rRT-PCR | Brain MRI: normal. | Transient ceftriaxone, amoxicillin & acyclovir |
Favorable; recovery within 24 h | (Bernard-Valnet, Pizzarotti, 2020) |
| Istanbul, Turkey | 6 cases (22–59 age range), one F | Encephalopathy, failure in gaining consciousness, developing agitation & delirium upon extubation | ARDS requiring intubation | Leukocytosis (11–42 K); ↑ CRP (32–732 mg/L), D-dimer (730–7930 μg/L), LDH (271–1110 U/L), ferritin (555–5235 μg/L), ↑ IL-6 (3 patients checked, 481–9192 pg/mL) | ↑ Protein (5 cases, 57–131 mg/dL), 0 WBC, normal glucose, ↑ IgG (5 cases checked), negative oligoclonal bands & culture / viral PCR / COVID-19 rRT-PCR. | Brain MRI (3 cases): cortical/white matter hyperintensities, contrast enhancement, and sulcal hemorrhagic features, compatible with meningoencephalitis. Brain MRI (3 cases): normal |
Plasmapheresis | Early gain of consciousness in 4 patients; one death due to COVID-19 worsening & cardiac arrest; prolonged ICU stay in one case due to CMV infection | (Dogan, Kaya, 2020) |
| Boca Raton, USA | 74, M (originally from Netherland) | Headache & progressive altered mental status | Fever & cough (one day prior) | Negative blood culture, urinalysis & Influenza A and B tests; positive COVID-19 nasopharyngeal swab | Mild ↑ protein (68 mg/dL), 4 WBC; negative culture, viral panel & COVID-19 rRT-PCR negative | Head CT scan: a left temporal region encephalomalacia, related to prior history of embolic stroke. EEG: bilateral slowing & focal slowing in the left temporal region with sharply countered waves. |
Hydroxychloroquine, lopinavir, ritonavir, vancomycin, meropenem & acyclovir. | Poor; critically ill | (Filatov, Sharma, 2020) |
| Telford, UK | 40, M (originally from Nigeria) | On admission day 3: gait instability; evolving to diplopia, oscillopsia, limb ataxia, right arm numbness, hiccups, bifacial/tongue weakness, upbeat nystagmus & normal reflexes (day 4) | Fever, dyspnea & malaise (10 days prior) | Admission: marginally ↑ CRP (50 mg/L), ALT (88 U/L) & GGT (107 U/L); normal CBCdiff; positive COVID-19 nasopharyngeal swab. Later: ↑ LFTs; Liver ultrasound: an inflammatory diffusely hypoechoic liver with a raised periportal & pericholecystic echogenicity. |
Normal protein (42.3 mg/dL), 0 WBC; COVID-19 rRT-PCR not done (low volume tap) | Brain/cervical spine MRI: hyperintensity in the right inferior cerebellar peduncle, extending to involve a small portion of the upper cord, measuring 13 mm in maximum cross-sectional area and 28 mm in longitudinal extent, swelling at the affected tissue and associated microhemorrhage; suggestive of inflammatory rhombencephalitis & myelitis. |
Supportive care, gabapentin (300 mg twice daily) | Favorable; recovery with residual oscillopsia & ataxia | (Wong, Craik, 2020a) |
| New York, USA | 74, M | Acute confusion following falls; evolving to combative behavior in hospital. | Admission: fever Day 5: new atrial fibrillation |
Admission: thrombocytopenia (122K), positive COVID-19 nasopharyngeal swab. Day 3: ↑ D-dimer (740 μg/L) Day 7: ↑ CRP (183.5 mg/L), ferritin (2837 μg/L) Day 10: ↑ D-dimer (5850 μg/L) |
NR | Head CT scan: unchanged nonspecific patchy subcortical & periventricular hypodensities. Brain autopsy: 80 to 110 nm viral particles in frontal lobe brain sections with Pleomorphic spherical viral-like particles observed in small vesicles of endothelial cell, distended cytoplasmic vacuoles containing enveloped viral particle in neural cell bodies, positive COVID-19 rRT-PCR. |
Admission: Hydroxychloroquine (4 days), enoxaparin S.C. Day 5: tocilizumab & metoprolol |
Death at day 1 due to pneumonia and respiratory failure related to COVID-19 | (Paniz-Mondolfi et al., 2020) |
| Los Angeles, USA | 41, F | Same-day headache, new onset seizure, lethargy, neck stiffness & photophobia | Admission: fever | ↑ lactic acid (4.8 mM/L); normal WBC, CK, LFT & RFT; negative nasopharyngeal swab for influenza A and B viruses; positive COVID-19 nasopharyngeal swab. | ↑ Protein (100 mg/dL), 70 WBC (100% lymphocytes), negative culture & viral PCR, positive COVID-19 rRT-PCR, | Head CT scan: normal. EEG: generalized slowing with no epileptic discharges. |
Transient ceftriaxone, vancomycin & acyclovir; levetiracetam; hydroxychloroquine | Favorable; recovery within 12 days | (Duong et al., 2020, Huang, Jiang, 2020b) |
| Acute necrotizing hemorrhagic encephalopathy | |||||||||
| Detroit, USA | Late 50, F | Three-day altered mental status | Fever & cough (concurrent) | Positive COVID-19 nasopharyngeal swab | Limited data due to traumatic LP, negative culture & viral PCR; unable to test COVID-19 rRT-PCR. | Head CT scan: symmetric hypoattenuation within the bilateral medial thalami. Head CT angiogram / venogram: normal. Brain MRI: hemorrhagic rim enhancing lesions within the bilateral thalami, medial temporal lobes, and subinsular regions. |
IVIG | NR | (Poyiadji, Shahin, 2020) |
| Acute CNS demyelination: Brain and/or Spinal Cord | |||||||||
| Wuhan, China | 66, M | Same-day rapidly progressive paraparesis, hyporeflexia, bladder & bowel incontinence, sensory loss below T10 level | Fever & fatigue (6 days prior) | Prior admission: positive COVID-19 nasopharyngeal swab. Admission: Leukocytosis (11.8 K), lymphocytopenia; ↑ IL-6 (56.7 pg/mL), CRP (278 mg/L), amyloid (1844 mg/L), procalcitonin (4.33 ng/mL), AST (50 U/L) & ALT (56.4 U/L); normal CK, LDH, troponin & RFT |
Not done | Head CT scan: bilateral basal ganglia and paraventricular lacunar infarction & brain atrophy. Brain MRI: not done. |
Ganciclovir, lopinavir, ritonavir, moxifloxacin, meropenem, glutathione, dexamethasone, IVIG (15 g/day for 7 days), mecobalamin & pantoprazole | Favorable; partial recovery after 7 days | (Zhao et al., 2020b) |
| Denmark | 28, F | Severn-day persistent lumbosacral pain, progressive ascending paresthesia/sensory loss mid-chest below the nipple line, bilateral upper extremities, and tip of tongue; evolving to urinary retention, nausea & vomiting in 48 h; Lhermitte's sign & wide-based gait | Cough, fever, lumbar pain, myalgias & rhinorrhea (7 days prior) | Prior admission: positive COVID-19 nasopharyngeal swab | ↑ Protein (60 mg/dL) & 125 WBC; | Spine MRI: Widespread elongated signal changes throughout the spinal cord to the conus medullaris and involving the medulla, overall suggestive of longitudinally extensive acute transverse myelitis | Prednisone & 2 plasmapheresis sessions | Favorable; improvement within 8 days | (Sarma and Bilello, 2020) |
| Marseille, France | 54, F | Admission: altered mental status Day 10: slight improvement in mental status, but right hemiplegia |
Fever, asthenia, dyspnea (8 days prior) | Admission: ↑ CRP (346 mg/L), LFTs & ferritin, positive COVID-19 nasopharyngeal swab | Admission: traumatic LP but normal protein and WBCs, negative culture/viral/ COVID-19 rRT-PCR. Repeat (day 9): Unchanged. |
Head CT scan (day 2): hypodense lesions involving supratentorial white matter & pallidum bilaterally. EEG: slowed background activity. Brain MRI (day 7): Multiple supratentorial punctiform and tumefactive lesions involving the white matter bilaterally and showing hypersignal on coronal FLAIR, axial T2-weighted, & DWI with low ADC. Some periventricular lesions or involving the corpus callosum with a mass effect on the left lateral ventricle. No intracranial vessels abnormalities. Repeat MRI (day 10): unchanged, but all homogenous contrast enhancement without any sign of hemorrhage in all lesions. Spine MRI: normal. |
Hydroxychloroquine, azithromycin, amoxicillin/clavulanic acid; Day 12: steroid therapy after negative COVID-19 nasopharyngeal swab | NR | (Brun, Hak, 2020) |
| Brescia, Italy | 54, F | Acute unconsciousness at home; evolving to hypoxia & intubation | No symptoms; anosmia & ageusia (several days prior) | Lymphocytopenia, ↑ CRP (41.3 mg/L) & fibrinogen (520 mg/dL); positive COVID-19 nasopharyngeal swab | Normal, negative COVID-19 rRT-PCR | Head CT scan: normal. EEG: two seizures starting from right frontotemporal region & diffusing in homologous contralateral hemisphere. Brain MRI: numerous periventricular white matter alterations, confluent with each other & compatible with demyelinating lesions, adjacent to the temporal, frontal & occipital horns & to the trigones, hyperintense in T2, without restriction of diffusion & without contrast enhancement. Cervical/thoracic spine MRI: numerous focal hyperintense intramedullary signal alterations in T2 & without contrast enhancement, located at the bulb-medullary junction, at C2 and from C3 to T6 levels. |
Hydroxychloroquine, lacosamide, levetiracetam, phenytoin, dexamethasone (10-day 20 mg/day & 10-day 10 mg/day) | Favorable, recovery after 12 days | (Zanin, Saraceno, 2020) |
| Genova, Italy | 64, F | Acute bilateral vision impairment, right leg numbness, headache, mild irritability, bilateral RAPD, ageusia & anosmia, right abdominal sensory level, left lower limb hyperreflexia & Babinski sign. | Flu-like symptoms, & persistent ageusia & anosmia (25 days prior) | Negative COVID-19 nasopharyngeal swab, positive anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG, negative AQ4 & anti-MOG antibody | Mild ↑ protein (45.2 mg/dL), 22 WBC (T-lymphocytic), negative COVID-19 rRT-PCR | Brain/spine MRI: multiple T1 post-contrast enhancing lesions of the brain, associated with a single spinal cord lesion at T8 level & with bilateral optic nerve enhancement, suspicion about ADEM. Follow-up MRI: a partial improvement with a reduction in the number of contrast-enhancing lesions. |
Methylprednisolone (1 g/day for 5 days) oral prednisone (75 mg/day), IVIG (2 g/kg for 5 days) | Favorable; improvement after 14 days of treatment | (Novi, Rossi, 2020) |
| Esslingen, Germany | 60, M | Two-day urinating problem, progressive spastic paraparesis, hypesthesia below T9 level & Babinski's sign | Respiratory symptoms (8 days prior) | Prior admission: positive COVID-19 nasopharyngeal swab Admission: normal CRP, negative COVID-19 nasopharyngeal swab |
Admission: ↑ protein (79.3 mg/dL), 16 WBC (lymphocytic), no oligoclonal band. Repeat: ↑ protein (117.7 mg/dL), 27 WBC (lymphocytic); negative COVID-19 rRT-PCR both times, negative SARS-CoV-2 IgG. Day 12: ↑ protein (73.4 mg/dL), 3 WBC |
Brain MRI: normal. Spine MRI: T2 signal hyperintensity of the thoracic spinal cord at T9 level, suggestive of acute transverse myelitis. Spine MRI (day 6): patchy hyperintensity of the thoracic myelin at T9-T10 & T3-T5 level, suggestive of transverse myelitis. |
Transient acyclovir & ceftriaxone; Day 7: methylprednisolone (100 mg/day) with taper after discharge | Favorable; recovery within 13 days with slight spastic paraparesis & hypesthesia below T9 level | (Munz, Wessendorf, 2020) |
| Ann Arbor, USA | 61, F | Two-day progressive distal limbs paresthesia & paraparesis; evolving to sensory loss till abdomen level, constipation & lower hyporeflexia on admission | Rhinorrhea & chills (5 days prior) | Lymphocytopenia, positive COVID-19 nasopharyngeal swab | Day 11: ↑ Protein (87 mg/dL), 3 WBC, no oligoclonal band, negative encephalitis antibody panel, negative COVID-19 rRT-PCR. Day 20 (repeat): ↑ Protein (153 mg/dL), 1 WBC, negative COVID-19 rRT-PCR. |
Spine MRI: Extensive ill-defined patchy hyperintense signal throughout the central aspect of the spinal cord on STIR, T2-weighted axial indicating mild enlargement of the spinal cord caliber & hyperintense signal without contrast enhancement. | Methylprednisolone (1 g/day for 5 days) & plasmapheresis (5 sessions) | Poor, incomplete recovery | (Valiuddin, Skwirsk, 2020) |
| Dubai, UAE | 32, M | One-day progressive paraparesis, lower hyporeflexia & urinating problem | Fever & flu-like symptoms (2 days prior); PE (one day after admission) | Normal ESR, WBC & ferritin; ↓ Hgb (10.7 g/dL); ↑ CRP (42 mg/L), D-dimer (2000 μg/L) & procalcitonin (0.13 μg/L); mild ↑ CK (252 U/L), prolonged PT (16.8 s), aPTT (51.3 s) & INR (1.33), positive Lupus anticoagulant antibody; positive COVID-19 nasopharyngeal swab | NR | Spine MRI: Diffuse hyperintensity predominantly in cervical, dorsal, & lumbar gray matter, mild enlargement & swelling of cervical cord, no cord or nerve root enhancement; DWI & ADC showing restricted diffusion, overall suggestive of acute myelitis. | Methylprednisolone (1 g/day for 5 days), acyclovir, & enoxaparin | Favorable; improvement after steroid therapy | (AlKetbi, AlNuaimi, 2020) |
| Acute Necrotizing Myelitis | |||||||||
| Terrassa, Spain | 68, F | Seven-day radicular neck pain, left hand numbness/weakness, & imbalance; evolving to both hand weakness / numbness & paraparesis with sphincter incontinence (few days after steroid therapy) | Fever & cough (8 days prior) | Negative AQ4 & anti-MOG antibody; positive COVID-19 nasopharyngeal swab | ↑ Protein (283 mg/dL), 75 WBC (98% lymphocytes), no oligoclonal bands, negative neuronal surface antibodies, | Brain MRI: normal. Spine MRI: T2-hyperintensity extending from the medulla oblongata to C7, involving most of the cord with diffuse patchy enhancing lesions, suggesting acute transverse myelitis. Repeat MRI (7 days): transversally & caudally progression until T6 level with similar enhancement & a new area of central necrosis at the T1 level with peripheral enhancement. Repeat MRI (after plasmapheresis): significant decreases of both myelitis extension & enhancement, with necrosis area in evolution. |
2 cycles of methylprednisolone (1 g/day for 5 days) with oral prednisone taper, plasma exchange | Favorable; slow recovery | (Sotoca and Rodríguez-Álvarez, 2020) |
ACE, angiotensin-converting enzyme; ADC, apparent diffusion coefficient; ADEM, acute disseminated encephalomyelitis; ALT, alanine aminotransferase; aPTT, activated partial-thromboplastin time; AQ4, antiaquaporin-4; BCx, blood culture; ARDS, acute respiratory distress syndrome; AST, Aspartate transaminase; CBCdiff, complete blood count with differential; CK, creatine kinase; COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019; CRP, C-reactive protein; DWI, diffusion-weighted imaging; EEG, electroencephalography; ESR, erythrocyte sedimentation rate; F, female; FLAIR, fluid attenuated inversion recovery; HSV, herpes simplex virus; ICU, intensive care unit; IL, interleukin; INR, international normalized ratio; IVIG, intravenous immunoglobulin; LDH, lactate dehydrogenase; LFT, liver function test; LP, lumbar puncture; M, male; RAPD, relative afferent pupillary defect; MOG, myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein; NR, not reported; RFT, renal function test; rRT-PCR, real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction; SARS-CoV-2, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-α; UCx, urine culture; VZV, varicella zoster virus.