Table 3.

Summary of selected test validation studies (n = 30) for diseases other than Mycobacterium bovis in free-range, captive, and farmed wild mammals published between 2008 and 2017.

Reference no.	Year	Disease or pathogen	Species	Specimen type	Index tests	References test(s)	Source population/matches purposes	Principle cited*/statistical methods
58	2008	Classical swine fever virus	Wild boar	Organs (tonsil, lymph nodes, ileocecal valves, kidney, spleen), blood, viral culture	2 RT-PCRs	Virus isolation	Mix of PT panels and field/no	Yes/none
97	2008	Anaplasma spp.	Wild ruminants	Serum	ELISA	PCR, IFA	Retrospective samples of mixed species of wild ruminants/no	No/ROC
125	2009	Trypanosoma cruzi	Raccoon, Virginia opossum	Serum	Chigas Stat-Pak	IFA	Archived samples, samples from experimental infections/no	No/point estimate with CI
29	2010	Anaplasma phagocytophilum, parvovirus	Fishers, gray foxes	Fecal samples, whole blood	SNAP-PARVO RDT	PCR, IFA	None/NA	No/point estimate with CI
96	2010	Brucella abortus	Elk	Serum	Card test, Rivanol, RAP, western blot	Bacterial culture	Some provided by collaborators with known infection/no	No/point estimate with CI
112	2011	African swine fever virus	Wild boar, domestic pigs, bush pigs, and ticks	Whole blood, serum, tissues, ticks	Real-time PCR with internal control	Virus isolation	None/NA	No/point estimate
6	2012	Chronic wasting disease: PrPCWD	Rocky Mountain elk, white-tailed deer, mule deer, roe deer, red deer, fallow deer	Brainstem (obex region) and lymph node tissues	4 ELISAs, western blots, lateral flow test	IHC	None/NA	No/only analytical Se and Sp reported
111	2012	Chronic wasting disease	White-tailed deer	Brainstem, lymph node tissues	IHC	Rectal biopsy test results	3 Canadian and 1 U.S. herd/confined to case herds with complete information	No/random-effects logistic regression model; Forest plots for DSe
126	2012	Rabies virus	Raccoon dogs, cattle, dogs	Brain	Virus isolation, RT-PCR, RIDA	Fluorescent antibody test	None/NA	No/point estimate
80	2013	Henipavirus	Fruit bat	Plasma	Multiplexed microsphere binding assay	Virus neutralization	Opportunistic sampling/mixed samples	Yes/ROC, Bayesian
84	2013	MAP infection	Elk, bison, caribou	Serum	ELISA	Bacterial culture	Animals of known infectious status/mixed samples	Yes/point estimate, ROC
106	2013	Infestation of Notoedres cati (not OIE-listed)	Bobcats	Fecal samples	PCR	Clinical sign, skin scraping, fecal flotation	Bobcats in the preserve area where no significant population fluctuation/ opportunistic sampling	No/point estimate
118	2013	Rabies virus	Red fox, racoon dog	Serum	BioPro ELISA	FAVN	Field samples and experimental infection/no	No/specificity concordance reported
1	2014	Toxoplasma gondii	Gray seal	Serum	ELISAs, western blot	Not applied	None/NA	Yes/relative values reported
21	2014	Trichinella infection	Wild boar	Serum	ELISAs, western blot	Artificial digestion	Low- and high-risk groups/no	No/only kappa
83	2014	MAP	Fallow deer	Serum	ELISAs	Histopathology, culture	Samples from a 500-deer population/partial	Yes/ROC, kappa
13	2015	Sarcoptes scabiei	Experimentally infected, farmed, and wild rabbits	Serum	ELISA	Skin scraping	Wild rabbits from Mallorca Island/no	No/point estimate
31	2015	African swine fever virus	Wild boars	Tissues, bone marrow, whole blood, serum	PCRs, ELISA	Virus isolation	Infection-status known animals/no	No/point estimate
38	2015	Brucellosis	African buffalo	Serum	ELISA, RBT, CFT	RBT, CFT	Herd from Kruger National Park/partial	Yes/Bayesian modeling
41	2015	Sarcoptes scabiei	Wild boars	Serum	ELISA	Skin scraping	Wild boar from Petite Pierre National Reserve/repeatable sampling on same animals	Yes/point estimate
117	2015	Toxoplasma gondii	Wild boars	Serum	ELISA	None	Wild boar population in Sweden/random selection from national surveillance program	Yes/Bayesian latent class analysis
23	2016	Leishmania infantum	Rabbit, hares	Serum, skin	IFATs, PCR	None	Lagomorphs in 2 areas of the region of Madrid/partial	Yes/Bayesian approach
48	2016	Tick-borne encephalitis virus	Wild rodents	Serum	ELISA, PCR	Neutralization test	Mixed samples/no	No/point estimate
86	2016	Sarcoptes scabiei	Iberian ibex	Serum	ELISA	Categorization of scabietic skin lesion	Iberian ibexes from Sierra Nevada Natural and National Parks/convenience sampling	No/ROC curve
94	2016	African swine fever virus	Wild boar	Serum	Lateral flow assay	PCR, antigen-detection ELISA	Mixed samples/no	No/point estimate
44	2016	Bluetongue	Bovine/ovine/caprid	Serum	Lateral flow assay, PCR	Antibody-ELISA	Mixed samples/no	Yes/point estimate
12	2017	African swine fever virus	Wild boar	Serum, lung	Pen-side rapid test	IPMA, ELISA	Wild boar on island of Sardinia, Italy/yes	No/ROC curve
28	2017	Epizootic hemorrhagic disease	Impala, dromedary camel	Serum	ELISA	Virus isolation	Infectious-status known samples/no	No/point estimate
59	2017	Bovine spongiform encephalopathies	Macaques, human, cattle	Brain	RT-QuIC	Western blot	None/NA	No/point estimate
110	2017	Hemorrhagic septicemia	Asian elephants	Serum	ELISA, IHA	None	Archived samples/no	Yes/Bayesian approach

CFT = complement fixation test; FAVN = fluorescent antibody virus neutralization test; IHA = indirect hemagglutination assay; IHC = immunohistochemistry; IPMA = immunoperoxidase monolayer assay; NA = not applicable (when source population is not stated, it is not appropriate to assess whether the source population matches the study purpose); MAP = Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis; PT = proficiency test; RBT = Rose Bengal test; RIDA = rapid immunodiagnostic assay; RT-QuIC = real-time quaking-induced conversion assay.

^*Whether OIE chapters or related studies^{34,36,40,49,123,124} were cited; this indicates whether the paper has followed principles or methodologic guidelines for test validation in wild mammals.