Table 1.
Sample characteristics and EMA methodological details.
| References, Country | Subgroup, setting (i.e., community, clinic, etc.) | N | Mean age (SD) | Female (%) | Diagnosis | EMA methodological details |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ammerman, Olino,39 United States | Subgroup: Adults in an urban environment.Setting: Clinic | 51 | 28.82 (9.8) | 74.5 | DD & BPD (DSM-IV) | Length of observation: 7 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Interval (4 per day) EMA tool: Mobile phoneEMA measures: • PA • NA • NSSI• Impulsive & aggressive feelingsCompliance: 78% completed |
| Andrewes, Hulbert,40 Australia | Subgroup: Young people Setting: Clinic | 132 | 18.1 (2.7) | 83.2 | BPD (DSM-IV) | Length of observation: 6 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Signal (6 per day) EMA tool: Mobile phoneEMA measures: • PA• NA• SIT• NSSICompliance: 51.56% completed |
| Andrewes, Hulbert,44 Australia | Subgroup: Young people with BPDSetting: Clinic | 107 | 18.1 (2.7) | 83.2 | Psychopathology (DSM-IV) | Length of observation: 6 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Signal (6 per day) EMA tool: Mobile phoneEMA measures: • PA• NA• NSSICompliance: 51.56% completed |
| Anestis, Silva,33 United States | Subgroup: Adults with BNSetting: Clinic and community | 127 | 25.34 (7.71) | 100 | Psychopathology (DSM-IV) | Length of observation: 14 daysSample Strategy (Frequency): SignalEMA tool: N/AEMA measures: • PA• NA (only negative subscale) Compliance: N/A |
| Armey, Crowther,31 United States | Subgroup: College studentsSetting: Community | 36 | 18.70 (0.79) | 75 | N/A | Length of observation: 7 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Signal (6 per day) and EventEMA tool: PDAEMA measures: • PA• NA• NSSI (behaviours, time spent, and severity of episode) Compliance: 89% completed |
| Coifman, Berenson,41 United States | Subgroup: Adults with BPDSetting: Clinic and community | 126 | 33 (12.2) | 77.80 | BPD (DSM-IV) | Length of observation: 21 daysSample Strategy (Frequency): Signal (5 per day) EMA tool: PDAEMA measures: • PA• NA• Perceived interpersonal stress• NSSI (impulsive behaviour) Compliance: 71% completed |
| Crowe, Daly,54 Ireland | Subgroup: Adults with MDDSetting: Clinic and community | 64 | S1: 44.4 (12.1) S2: 41.2 (14.4) | S1: 42 S2: 70 | MDD (DSM-IV) | Length of observation: 10 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Signal (6 per day) EMA tool: P&PEMA measures: • Affect• Self-esteem• SuicidalityCompliance: N/A |
| Depp, Moore,26 United States | Subgroup: Adults with/without suicidal ideationSetting: Clinic and community | 93 | 44.98 (10.5) | 56.60 | Schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder (DSM-IV) | Length of observation: 7 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Signal (10 per day) EMA tool: PDAEMA measures: • Time spent alone• Interpersonal interaction• Anticipating being aloneCompliance: 61.40% completed |
| Depp, Moore,28 United States | Subgroup: Outpatient with bipolar (suicide risk) Setting: Clinic and community | 41 | 46.90 (11.8) | 53.70 | Bipolar I or II (DSM) | Length of observation: 77 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Signal (2 per day) EMA tool: SmartphoneEMA measures: • Impulsivity• Affective rating• Daily life activities• Location• Social contextCompliance: 65.1% completed |
| Fitzpatrick, Kranzler,56 United States | Subgroup: People engaged in NSSISetting: Community | 47 | 19.07 (1.77) | 68.10 | N/A | Length of observation: 14 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Interval (5 per day) EMA tool: SmartphoneEMA measures: • NSSI thoughts• SSI behavioursCompliance: 80% completed |
| Hadzic, Spangenberg,51 Germany | Subgroup: Psychiatric inpatients Setting: Clinic | 74 | 37.61 (14.33) | 71.6 | Unipolar depressive disorder (DSM-IV) and Suicide Ideation (SBQ-R) | Length of observation: 6 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Signal (6 per day) EMA tool: N/AEMA measures: • Suicide ideationCompliance: N/A |
| Hallensleben, Glaesmer,55 Germany | Subgroup: Adults with passive and active suicidal ideationSetting: Clinic | 74 | 37.6 (14.3) | 72 | Unipolar affective depression (DSM-IV) | Length of observation: 10 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Signal (6 days) EMA tool: SmartphoneEMA measures: • Passive suicide ideation• Active suicide ideation• Depression• Hopelessness• Thwarted Belongingness• Perceived BurdensomenessCompliance: 89.7% completed |
| Hallensleben, Spangenberg,48 Germany | Subgroup: Psychiatric inpatientsSetting: Clinic | 20 | 35.9 (9.3) | 80 | Unipolar affective disorder (DSM-IV) | Length of observation: 6 daysSample Strategy (Frequency): Signal (10 per day) EMA tool: SmartphoneEMA measures: • Passive suicide intent• Active suicide intentCompliance: N/A |
| Hochard, Ashcroft,66 United Kingdom | Subgroup: University students who self-harmSetting: Community | 72 | 21.04 (3.4) | 88.89 | N/A | Length of observation: 5 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Interval (2 per day) EMA tool: P&PEMA measures: • Self-harm thoughts• Self-harm acts• NightmaresCompliance: 91.11% completed |
| Hochard, Heym,67 United Kingdom | Subgroup: University studentsSetting: Community | 72 | 21.04 (3.4) | 88.89 | N/A | Length of observation: 5 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Interval (2 per day) EMA tool: P&PEMA measures: PA• NA• Self-harm thoughts• Self-harm acts• NightmaresCompliance: 91.11% completed |
| Houben, Claes,42 Belgium | Subgroup: Psychiatric inpatientsSetting: Clinic | 30 | 29.03 (8.76) | 87 | BPD (DSM-IV) | Length of observation: 8 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Signal (10 per day) EMA tool: Palmtop computerEMA measures: • PA• NA• NSSI (act/behaviours) Compliance: 65.80% completed |
| Hughes, King,86 United States | Subgroup: Young adults who self-injuredSetting: Clinic and Community | 47 | 19.1 (1.77) | 68 | N/A | Length of observation: 14 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Signal (5 per day) and EventEMA tool: SmartphoneEMA measures: • Affect• NSSI thoughts and behaviours• Repeated Negative Thinking (RNT) Compliance: 80% completed |
| Humber, Emsley,57 United Kingdom | Subgroup: Adult from a penitentiary facilitySetting: Community | 21 | 36 | 0 | N/A | Length of observation: 6 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Signal (6 per day) and EventEMA tool: P&PEMA measures: • Anger• Psychological distress• Suicidal ideation• Universal eventsCompliance: 69% completed |
| Kleiman, Turner,62 United States | Subgroup: People from an online community and psychiatric inpatients that attempted suicide or with suicidal ideationSetting: Clinic and community | S1:54 S2:36 | S1: 23.24 (5.26) S2: 47.74 (13.06) | S1: 79.6 S2: 44.1 | N/A | Length of observation: 28 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Signal (4 per day) and EventEMA tool: SmartphoneEMA measures: • Suicidal ideation (S1 & S2) • Risk factors – hopeless, burdensome, and loneliness (S2) Compliance: • S1: 62.75% completed• S2: 62% completed |
| Kranzler, Fehling,62 United States | Subgroup: Young people engaged in NSSISetting: Clinic and Community | 47 | 19.07 (1.77) | 68 | BPD (DSM-IV) | Length of observation: 14 daysSample Strategy (Frequency): Signal (5 per day) and EventEMA tool: SmartphoneEMA measures: • Negative emotions• Positive emotions• NSSI (thoughts) • NSSI (behaviours) Compliance: 85.12% completed |
| Lavender, De Young,34 United States | Subgroup: People with EDSetting: Clinic and community | 118 | 25.3 (8.4) | 100 | AN (DSM-IV) |
|
| Lavender, Wonderlich,35 United States | Subgroup: People with EDSetting: Clinic and community | 116 | 25.3 (8.4) | 100 | AN (DSM-IV) | Length of Observation: 14 daysSample Strategy (Frequency): Signal (6 per day) and EventEMA tool: Palmtop computerEMA measures: • PA• NA• Self-discrepancy• Eating behavioursCompliance: 87-89% completed |
| Law, Furr,47 United States | Subgroup: People with/without BPDSetting: Clinic and community | 282 | 43.9 (11.2) | 67 | BPD (DSM-IV) | Length of observation: 14 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Interval (1–5 per day) EMA tool: Palmtop computerEMA measures: • BPD symptoms• Suicide attempt• Suicidal ideation• Self-harmCompliance: 65% completed |
| Links, Eynan,27 Canada | Subgroup: Psychiatric outpatient with BPDSetting: Clinic | 82 | 33.5 (10.3) | 83 | BPD (DSM-IV) | Length of observation: 21 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Signal (6 per day) EMA tool: P&PEMA measures: • Mood• SituationCompliance: 58.10% completed |
| Littlewood, Kyle,69 United Kingdom | Subgroup: People with suicide ideationSetting: Community and clinic | 51 | 35.47 (12.81) | 67 | MDD (DSM-IV) | Length of observation: 7 daysSample Strategy (Frequency): Mixed (6 per day) EMA tool: ActigraphyEMA measures: • Subjective sleep quality• Suicide ideation• EntrapmentCompliance: 84-94% completed |
| Muehlenkamp, Engel,36 United States | Subgroup: People with BN and with/without NSSISetting: Community | 131 | 25.3 (7.6) | 100 | BN (DSM-IV) | Length of observation: 14 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Interval (6 per day) EMA tool: Palmtop computerEMA measures: • PA• NA• NSSICompliance: N/A |
| Nisenbaum, Links,87 Canada | Subgroup: Psychiatric outpatient with BPDSetting: Clinic | 82 | 33.5 (10.3) | 83 | BPD (DSM-IV) | Length of observation: 21 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Signal (6 per day) EMA tool: P&PEMA measures: • MoodCompliance: 85% completed |
| Nock, Prinstein,29 United States | Subgroup: People with Suicidal and NSSI thoughtsSetting: Community | 30 | 17.3 (1.9) | 87 | N/A | Length of observation: 14 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Interval (2 per day) and EventEMA tool: PDAEMA measures: • Self-destructive thoughts• Self-destructive behaviours (suicide attempt or NSSI) • Intensity, duration, and context of thoughtsCompliance: 83% completed |
| Oppenheimer, Silk,59 United States | Subgroup: People with anxietySetting: Community | 36 | 13.56 (1.50) | 53 | Anxiety disorders (DSM-IV) | Length of observation: 14 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Signal (14 across 5 days) EMA tool: Mobile phoneEMA measures: • Negative social experienceCompliance: N/A |
| Palmier-Claus, Taylor,50 United Kingdom | Subgroup: Participants from RCT on early detection servicesSetting: Clinic | 27 | 22.6 (4.4) | 51 | Ultra-High Risk Psychosis | Length of observation: 6 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Signal (10 per day) EMA tool: P&PEMA measures: • PA• NACompliance: N/A |
| Pearson, Pisetsky,49 United States | Subgroup: People with BNSetting: Clinic and Community | 133 | 25.3 (7.6) | 100 | BN (DSM-IV) | Length of observation: 14 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Signal (7 per day) EMA tool: PDAEMA measures: • Binge eating and purging• Risky behaviours: self-harm, substance misuse, and reckless behavioursCompliance: N/A |
| Rizk, Choo,52 United States | Subgroup: People with BPDSetting: Community | 38 | 28.6 (9.5) | 100 | N/A | Length of Observation: 7 daysSample Strategy (Frequency): Signal (6 per day) EMA tool: PDAEMA measures: • Suicide ideation• Self-harm urgesCompliance: N/A |
| Santangelo, Koenig,60 Germany | Subgroup: Adolescent with BPD and who engaged with/without NSSISetting: Clinic and community | 46 | 15.9 (1.25) | 100 | BPD (DSM-IV) | Length of observation: 4 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Signal (12 per day) EMA tool: SmartphoneEMA measures: • Mood• Interpersonal stateCompliance: 82% completed |
| Selby, Franklin,23 United States | Subgroup: People who or who not experience NSSISetting: University and community | 47 | N/A | 66 | Psychopathology (DSM-IV) | Length of observation: 14 daysSample strategy (frequency): Signal (5 per day) EMA tool: PDAEMA measures: • PA• NA• Rumination• NSSICompliance: 90% completed |
| Selby and Joiner,24 United States | Subgroup: People diagnosed with or without BPDSetting: University and Community | 47 | N/A | 66 | BPD (DSM-IV) | Length of observation: 14 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Signal (5 per day) EMA tool: PDAEMA measures: • PA• NA• Rumination• Dysregulated behaviours (include NSSI)Compliance: 90% completed |
| Selby, Nock,64 United States | Subgroup: People who or who do not experience APRSetting: Clinic | 30 | 17.3 (1.9) | 87 | N/A | Length of observation: 14 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Interval (2 per day) and EventEMA tool: PDAEMA measures: • NSSI (behaviour and thoughts) • Dysregulated behavioursCompliance: 83% completed |
| Selby, Kranzler,30 United States | Subgroup: Adolescent who NSSISetting: Community | 47 | 19.7 (1.77) | 68.1 | N/A | Length of observation: 14 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Signal (5 per day) and EventEMA tool: SmartphoneEMA measures: • NSSI• Physical pain• Negative emotionsCompliance: 80% completed |
| Snir, Rafaeli,46 United States | Subgroup: People diagnosed with or without BPD and APDSetting: Community | 152 | N/A | N/A | BPD (DSM-IV) and APD | Length of observation: 21 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Signal (5 per day) EMA tool: N/AEMA measures: • NSSI (episodes) • NSSI (urges) • Affect • Cognition• Behaviours that inferred motivesCompliance: N/A |
| Spangenberg, Glaesmer,63 Germany | Subgroup: People diagnosed with depressionSetting: Clinical | 74 | 37.6 (14.3) | 72 | Unipolar depressive disorder (DSM-IV) | Length of observation: 6 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Signal (10 per day) EMA tool: SmartphoneEMA measures: • Suicidal ideation (passive) • Suicidal ideation (active) • Capability of SuicideCompliance: 89.7–95.4% completed |
| Tian, Yang,25 China | Subgroup: Full-time workersSetting: Community | 231 | 27.63 (3.73) | 100 | N/A | Length of observation: Used DRMSample strategy (Frequency): EventEMA tool: N/AEMA measures: • PACompliance: N/A |
| Turner, Yiu,38 Canada | Subgroup: People with NSSI and EDSetting: Community | 60 | 23.12 (3.81) | 92 | Psychiatric Disorders (DSM-IV) | Length of observation: 14 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Interval (3 per day) EMA tool: N/AEMA measures: • NSSI (behaviours) • Binge eating• Purging • MoodCompliance: N/A |
| Turner, Cobb,37 United States | Subgroup: People with NSSISetting: Community | 60 | 23.25 (4.25) | 85 | Psychiatric Disorders (DSM-IV) | Length of observation: 14 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Interval (3 per day) EMA tool: N/AEMA measures: • NSSI (behaviour) • NSSI (urges) • Perceived social support• Interpersonal conflict• NACompliance: N/A |
| Turner, Wakefield,22 United States | Subgroup: Students who engaged in or did not engage in NSSISetting: Clinic and Community | 116 | 23.50 (4.66) | 78 | Psychiatric Disorders (DSM-IV) and NSSI | Length of observation: 14 daysSample Strategy (Frequency): IntervalEMA tool: N/AEMA measures: • Interpersonal contact• Social support• Negative interpersonal interactions• NA• Coping strategiesCompliance: 86.2% completed |
| Vansteelandt, Houben,45 Belgium | Subgroup: Patients with and without NSSISetting: Clinic | 32 | 28 (9) | 84 | BPD (DSM-IV) | Length of observation: 8 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Signal (10 per day) EMA tool: PDAEMA measures: • Affect• NSSI actsCompliance: 63% completed |
| Victor, Scott,43 United States | Subgroup: Young adult women with internalising and externalising NASetting: Community | 62 | 22.0 (1.55) | 100 | BPD (DSM-IV) | Length of observation: 21 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Interval (6 per day) EMA tool: Mobile PhoneEMA measures: • Affect• Interpersonal Experience• Self-Injurious urgesCompliance: 85-50% completed |
| Vine, Victor,53 United States | Subgroup: Adolescent with BPD and history of suicidalitySetting: Clinic | 162 | 12.03 (0.92) | 47 | BPD (DSM-IV) and suicide ideation and attempts | Length of observation: 4 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Interval (10 per day) EMA tool: SmartphoneEMA measures: • Dissociations• Suicide thoughts• Daily thoughtsCompliance: 88.8 – 90.1% completed |
| Woosley, Lichstein,68 United States | Subgroup: People with insomniaSetting: Community | 786 | 53.73 (19.84) | 51 | N/A | Length of observation: 14 daysSample Strategy (Frequency): Interval (2 per day) EMA tool: P&PEMA measures: • Sleep behaviourCompliance: N/A |
| Wright, Hallquist,58 United States | Subgroup: Psychiatric inpatients with BPDSetting: Clinic | 5 | 20–30 | 80 | BPD | Length of observation: 21 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Interval and EventEMA tool: SmartphoneEMA measures: • PA• NA• Interpersonal interactions• Aggression• Substance useCompliance: N/A |
| Zaki, Coifman,65 United States | Subgroup: People with BPDSetting: Clinic and community | 38 | 29.89 (10.6) | 84 | BPD (DSM-IV) | Length of observation: 21 daysSample strategy (Frequency): Signal (5 per day) EMA tool: PDAEMA measures: • Negative emotions• Positive emotions• NSSI acts • NSSI urgesCompliance: N/A |
PA: positive affect; NA: negative affect; NSSI: non-suicidal Self Injury; SIT: self-injurious thoughts; APR: automatic positive reinforcement; DD: depressive disorder; BPD: borderline personality disorder; BN: bulimia nervosa; AN: anorexia nervosa; ED: eating disorder; MDD: major depressive disorder; APD: avoidant personality disorder; PDA: portable device assistant; P&P: pen and paper; S1: Study 1; S2: Study 2; RCT: randomised controlled Trial; DRM: day reconstruction method (prompts participants based on sequences of events from previous day)