FIGURE 3.

The stages of biofilm formation and potential targets for anti-biofilm agents. The bacterial cells in humans attach to the matrix-forming proteins by forming a covalent linkage with peptidoglycan structure or by non-covalent attachment. With attachment and aggregation of a sufficient number of cells, the formation of EPS matrix takes place, and the attachment now becomes resistant to external repulsive forces. With the maturation of biofilm, the cells within the bulk structure start further communication with each other and start secreting specialized proteins and DNA, and some of them are involved in the formation of the efflux pump. At last, the dispersion of free planktonic cells from the formed biofilm further promotes the formation of new biofilms in the periphery. The natural anti-biofilm compounds can attack at one or different stages of biofilm formation and development, thus inhibiting it.